Genetically modified food (food derived from biotechnology): current and future trends in public acceptance and safety assessment

Current and future trends regarding genetically modified (GM) crops and food stuffs were reviewed, with a particular focus on public acceptance and safety assessment. While GM foods, foods derived from biotechnology, are popular with growers and producers, they are still a matter of some concern among consumers. In fact, our recent surveys showed that Japanese consumers had become uneasy about the potential health risks of genetically modified foods. Many Japanese consumers have only vague ideas about the actual health risks, and they appear to be making decisions simply by rejecting GM food because of non-informed doubts. Although the debate about GM foods has increased in the mass media and scientific journals, few articles concerning direct studies on the potential toxicity or adverse health effects of GM foods have appeared. The roles of relevant international regulatory bodies in ensuring that GM crops and food are safe are therefore have summarized. Finally, the current debate on use of GM crops in agriculture and future trends for development of GM foods with enriched nutrients, better functionality, and medicinal ingredients, which will be of direct benefit to the consumer, are covered.     

An Asian perspective on GMO and biotechnology issues

Of the 102 million hectares that made up the global area of biotech crops in 2006, less than 8% (7.6 million ha) were in Asia. Three biotech crops are currently planted in significant areas in four Asian countries with government regulatory approval; namely, cotton, corn (maize), and canola. However, the amount of GM crop material imported into the Asian region for processing into food and animal feed is very substantial, and almost every country imports GM food. The issues which concern Asian scientists, regulators, and the lay public resemble those of other regions - biosafety, food safety, ethics and social justice, competitiveness, and the "EU" trade question. Most Asian countries now have regulatory systems for approving the commercialization of GM crops, and for approving food safety of GM crops. In Asia, because of the varied cultures, issues concerning the use of genes derived from animals arouse much emotion for religious and diet choice reasons. Because many Asian producers and farmers are small-scale, there is also concern about technology dependency and to whom the benefits accrue. All consumers surveyed have expressed concern about potential allergenic and long-term toxic effects, neither of which is grounded on scientific facts. Because of Asia's growing demand for high volumes of quality food, it is likely that GM crops will become an increasing feature of our diet.     

Nutrition and health--genetically modified food

The genetically modified (GM) crops cultivated at present have new properties of benefit to agriculture. It is expected that in the future GM crops will also be cultivated with more complex genetic modifications that are aimed at improving the nutritional and health value to the consumer. The safety assessment of GM foods before market approval is based on a comparison of the characteristics of the GM food with those of the conventional counterpart. Identified differences are thoroughly tested for their toxicological and nutritional consequences. Supplementary modern analytical techniques are being developed for the assessment of future complex GM foods. No cases of adverse health or nutritional effects in consumers have been reported for the existing generation of GM foods. The feasibility of post-market surveillance of (GM) foods, in order to identify small or chronic effects that have not been noticed in the pre-market phase, is being investigated, yet its value should not be overestimated. Surveillance can be informative in case of specific questions concerning certain products as long as the consumer intake is well documented. To this end traceability and labelling systems must be set up.     

Mad cows,mad corn and mad communities: the role of socio-cultural factors in the perceived risk of genetically-modified food

The rapid globalization of the world economy has increased the need for a knowledge base of reliable socio-cultural differences in perceptions, values and ways of thinking about new food technologies. Awareness of socio-cultural differences is important because collaborative efforts to deal with food hazards presuppose some understanding of where, how and why the viewpoints of various stakeholders may differ. In the present paper factors that influence public perceptions of genetically-modified (GM) food are discussed, with a special focus on the unique circumstances of populations in the USA, Europe and developing countries. It is argued that effective communication and decision making about the risk of GM food depends critically on understanding how socio-cultural groups differ in their values and in the way they deal with the risks and benefits of new technologies. The implications of psychological aspects of perceived risk (including the roles of qualitative dimensions of risk, world views and trust) for public acceptance of new food technologies are highlighted.     

Health benefits of 'grow your own' food in urban areas: implications for contaminated land risk assessment and risk management?

Compelling evidence of major health benefits of fruit and vegetable consumption, physical activity, and outdoor interaction with 'greenspace' have emerged in the past decade - all of which combine to give major potential health benefits from 'grow-your-own' (GYO) in urban areas. However, neither current risk assessment models nor risk management strategies for GYO in allotments and gardens give any consideration to these health benefits, despite their potential often to more than fully compensate the risks. Although urban environments are more contaminated by heavy metals, arsenic, polyaromatic hydrocarbons and dioxins than most rural agricultural areas, evidence is lacking for adverse health outcomes of GYO in UK urban areas. Rarely do pollutants in GYO food exceed statutory limits set for commercial food, and few people obtain the majority of their food from GYO. In the UK, soil contamination thresholds triggering closure or remediation of allotment and garden sites are based on precautionary principles, generating 'scares' that may negatively impact public health disproportionately to the actual health risks of exposure to toxins through own-grown food. By contrast, the health benefits of GYO are a direct counterpoint to the escalating public health crisis of 'obesity and sloth' caused by eating an excess of saturated fats, inadequate consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables combined with a lack of exercise. These are now amongst the most important preventable causes of illness and death. The health and wider societal benefits of 'grow-your-own' thus reveal a major limitation in current risk assessment methodologies which, in only considering risks, are unable to predict whether GYO on particular sites will, overall, have positive, negative, or no net effects on human health. This highlights a more general need for a new generation of risk assessment tools that also predict overall consequences for health to more effectively guide risk management in our increasingly risk-averse culture.     

A comparison of chemical composition and nutritional value of organically and conventionally grown plant derived foods

The consumption of organic food has been increasing all over the world. Due to this fact, there are growing numbers of scientific studies examining the nutritional value of organic food. The aim of this review is to provide an overall picture of the beneficial and harmful nutritional content of organically and conventionally produced crops based on existing international comparative surveys. Furthermore, the authors attempt to define the relationship between organic and conventional food production systems and the nutritional value of food products as well as the consumption of organic and conventional diets which have important human health implications. Organic crops contain a significantly higher amount of certain antioxidants (vitamin C, polyphenols and flavonoids) and minerals, as well as have higher dry matter content than conventional ones. Moreover, there is a lower level of pesticide residues, nitrate and some heavy metal contaminations in organic crops compared to conventional ones. There is a relationship between the different fertilisation and plant protection methods of these two plant production systems and the nutritional composition of crops. Consequently, it can be concluded that organically produced plant derived food products have a higher nutritional value, including antioxidants than conventional ones. Furthermore, due to the fact that there is a lower level of contamination in organic crops, the risk of diseases caused by contaminated food is significantly reduced.     

Soil and human health: Understanding agricultural and socio-environmental risk and resilience in the age of climate change

Prolonged monocropping of commodity crops, such as peanuts (Arachis hypogea L.) in West Africa, typically strips nutrients from soils and may exacerbate vulnerability to insects and diseases. In this paper, we focus on aflatoxins, toxic chemicals produced by certain molds growing on moist crops, as one risk of growing importance for its negative impacts on human health, crop yields, and agricultural livelihoods and ecosystems. We link the increased prevalence of this deadly fungus to the long history of peanut monoculture, exacerbated by market liberalization and China's increased investment and export demand for peanuts, climate change, food insecurity, as well as disregard for and displacement of traditional agricultural knowledge. We use a political ecology approach to place the public health threat from aflatoxin in the context of both historical pressures for cash-crop production of peanuts and contemporary soil degradation, food insecurity, climate change precarity and changes within social and economic systems of agriculture in Senegal.     

The organisation and future development of Veterinary Services in Latin America

Latin America undoubtedly has comparative advantages in the fields of animal production, animal health and the production of food of animal origin. However, countries in Latin America must build on these strengths if the continent is to become more competitive and be able to deal with the complexities of world markets. To do this, Veterinary Services must define their objectives and establish quality standards on which to base their work. For this to occur, the State must create well-defined regulations, establish systems of audit and find ways of working which allow for a high degree of coordination and collaboration between the public and private sectors. This should be done within a framework of a quality assurance system, which allows for responsible accreditation and independent audit and evaluation. The author discusses the approaches of the different countries in the region to animal health, zoonosis, food safety, veterinary drugs control, animal welfare and export-import control. All programmes relating to these issues must be based on technical information gained through epidemiological surveillance, the network of diagnostic laboratories, quarantine systems, risk analysis, identification and traceability of animals and animal products, registration and control of veterinary drugs, and food safety research. In some countries these systems are already being developed. Maintaining good international relations and cooperating with neighbouring countries is always a challenge for official Veterinary Services and international organisations such as the OIE (World organisation for animal health) have a key role to play in facilitating these relationships.     

Payment systems for health care providers in Latin America and OECD countries]

The system used to pay health services providers is one of the most important components of the contractual relationship between persons who receive health services and the individual practitioners and institutions that provide those services. That payment system is also relevant in assessing a health system, including its efficiency and quality. In this article we present a simple analytical framework for various payment systems. We also provide an overview of the payment approaches used in two groups of countries whose experiences we consider representative: 10 nations of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and four countries of Latin America. We present a basic model to characterize the different forms of payment based on two dimensions. One of the dimensions is the payment "unit," which is used to measure the amount of health care services provided or promised. The other dimension is the distribution of financial risks between the service provider and the service purchaser. Each payment system has advantages and disadvantages that should be evaluated in relation to the intended objectives. On one extreme of the approaches is fixed remuneration, without any adjustments; it represents the purest prepayment approach. One example of fixed remuneration is capitated payment, in which providers carry all the financial risks coming from the variability in the cost of providing services. On the other extreme is fee-for-service payment, where service providers are not at financial risk; the insurer or other financing institution carries all the risk from variable costs. Neither of the extremes appears to be the best choice, and so the issue becomes one of selecting a remuneration system that falls between those extremes. Therefore, it is necessary to choose, on the one hand, the optimal payment unit according to the objectives of the financing entity and, on the other hand, a risk distribution approach that allocates to the service provider the risks coming from greater or less efficiency in delivering services.     

The role of the media in construction and presentation of food risks

In this article we examine how and why the media construct food risks, from the perspective of ‘media actors’ (people involved in different types of media) using data from 30 interviews conducted in 2013 with media actors from Australia and the United Kingdom. In modern society, many risks are invisible and are brought to the attention of the public through representations in the mass media. This is particularly relevant for food safety, where the widening gap between producers and consumers in the developed world has increased the need for consumer trust in the food supply. We show the importance of newsworthiness in construction of media stories about food risk using Beck’s ideas on cosmopolitan risk to interpret the data. We note the ways in which the strategies that media actors use to construct stories about food risk amplify the risk posed potentially creating consumer anxiety about the safety of the food system. It is important for food regulators and public health professionals to be aware of this anxiety when presenting information about a food incident so that they can target their message accordingly to decrease anxiety.     

Genetically modified plants and human health

Genetically modified (or GM) plants have attracted a large amount of media attention in recent years and continue to do so. Despite this, the general public remains largely unaware of what a GM plant actually is or what advantages and disadvantages the technology has to offer, particularly with regard to the range of applications for which they can be used. From the first generation of GM crops, two main areas of concern have emerged, namely risk to the environment and risk to human health. As GM plants are gradually being introduced into the European Union there is likely to be increasing public concern regarding potential health issues. Although it is now commonplace for the press to adopt 'health campaigns', the information they publish is often unreliable and unrepresentative of the available scientific evidence. We consider it important that the medical profession should be aware of the state of the art, and, as they are often the first port of call for a concerned patient, be in a position to provide an informed opinion. This review will examine how GM plants may impact on human health both directly - through applications targeted at nutrition and enhancement of recombinant medicine production - but also indirectly, through potential effects on the environment. Finally, it will examine the most important opposition currently facing the worldwide adoption of this technology: public opinion.     

Beyond the knowledge deficit: recent research into lay and expert attitudes to food risks

The paper reviews psychological and social scientific research on lay attitudes to food risks. Many experts (scientists, food producers and public health advisors) regard public unease about food risks as excessive. This expert-lay discrepancy is often attributed to a 'knowledge deficit' among lay people. However, much research in psychology and sociology suggests that lay risk assessments are complex, situationally sensitive expressions of personal value systems. The paper is organised around four themes: risk perception, the communication of risk, lay handling of risk, and public trust in institutions and experts. It suggests that an interdisciplinary, contextualised and psychologically sound approach to the study of risk is needed.     

Consumer responses to communication about food risk management

Recent emphasis within policy circles has been on transparent communication with consumers about food risk management decisions and practices. As a consequence, it is important to develop best practice regarding communication with the public about how food risks are managed. In the current study, the provision of information about regulatory enforcement, proactive risk management, scientific uncertainty and risk variability were manipulated in an experiment designed to examine their impact on consumer perceptions of food risk management quality. In order to compare consumer reactions across different cases, three food hazards were selected (mycotoxins on organically grown food, pesticide residues, and a genetically modified potato). Data were collected from representative samples of consumers in Germany, Greece, Norway and the UK. Scores on the "perceived food risk management quality" scale were subjected to a repeated-measures mixed linear model. Analysis points to a number of important findings, including the existence of cultural variation regarding the impact of risk communication strategies-something which has obvious implications for pan-European risk communication approaches. For example, while communication of uncertainty had a positive impact in Germany, it had a negative impact in the UK and Norway. Results also indicate that food risk managers should inform the public about enforcement of safety laws when communicating scientific uncertainty associated with risks. This has implications for the coordination of risk communication strategies between risk assessment and risk management organizations.     

转基因作物的安全性评价策略、现状及发展

基因重组技术赋予农业生产以巨大的活力 ,但转基因作物的安全性问题却不容忽视。有关国际组织及政府已达成共识 :在“实质等同性”原则的基础上 ,应对转基因作物进行详尽周密的安全性评价工作。有关策略包括实质等同性分析、毒性实验、致敏性研究、营养学评价等 ,随着新技术的发展 ,基因组学、蛋白质组学、代谢组学等新技术也将用于对非目标效应的监测 ,欧盟已在酝酿上市后监测的一些措施。总之 ,转基因作物的安全性评价策略是十分严格的 ,且还在逐步完善。     

Foodborne parasites

Foodborne parasitic diseases are an important cause of illness and economic loss world‐wide. The public health burden imposed by parasitic diseases such as toxoplasmosis, trichinellosis, cysticercosis and trematodosis are substantial even in developed countries. The rising concern generally over food safety is causing a reappraisal of the significance of foodborne parasites and the strategies to control them. It is clear that public trust in food production systems will depend on the development of more effective safeguards, which in turn will require much greater understanding of the nature and epidemiology of these zoonoses. The complexities of these parasite's life histories, and the close association of infection risk with entrenched cultural and agricultural practices make solutions difficult. The application of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) approach will require more information on parasite epidemiology, particularly factors which regulate survival and transmission. Control strategies must address the complete sequence of events encompassed by the food production chain. This will also require more effective detection technologies. More concerted efforts to educate consumers, industry, government, and public health workers of the hazards of foodborne parasites is also needed. Coupled with this is the demand for implementation of international guidelines and codes established by WHO and FAO for the production of food, especially fish and fish products. This review will present our current understanding of the biology and epidemiology of the major foodborne parasite zoonoses, and recommendations for research and control.     

Knowledge,Attitudes Toward,and Acceptability of Genetic Modification among Western Balkan University Students of Life Sciences (AGREE Study)

Background: There are still no data on the attitudes and acceptance of genetic modification (GM) food in European developing countries, such as the Western Balkan countries. The aim of the study was to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and acceptance of GM but also to shed light on the multifactorial process leading to acceptance of genetic modifications among Western Balkan students of life sciences.

Methods: In this cross-sectional study, the final study population sample was composed of 1251 university students. The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire consisting of 49 items composed of 5 sections taken from the literature. Attitudes toward GM were analyzed by using Q-mode factor analysis and principal component analysis was run for the assessment of perception of personal health risks. The acceptability of GM was analyzed in binary probit models assessing the acceptability of GM products in different areas of application with Q models, sociodemographic variables, perception of personal health risks factors, respondents' knowledge about biotechnology, gender, and age as explanatory variables.

Results: This study demonstrated that students of life sciences supported the implementation of GM in industry and medicine production but not in food production. Their acceptance was most influenced by 3 out of 5 attitude models that were identified (p < 0.0001). Regarding the perception of personal health risks, the factor “credence risks” was seen as a negative predictor of acceptance of GM in industry and food production (p < 0.05). The main knowledge predictor of rejecting GM was misconception, whereas real knowledge had no impact (p < 0.0001).

Conclusion: The AGREE study provided the first rough picture of the knowledge, attitudes, and acceptance of GM in this area. Given the target population, it could be expected that the general population's acceptance of all observed elements, especially knowledge, would be lower.     

Attitudes, perceptions, and trust. Insights from a consumer survey regarding genetically modified banana in Uganda

Genetically modified (GM) crops and food are still controversial. This paper analyzes consumers’ perceptions and institutional awareness and trust toward GM banana regulation in Uganda. Results are based on a study conducted among 421 banana-consuming households between July and August 2007. Results show a high willingness to purchase GM banana among consumers. An explanatory factor analysis is conducted to identify the perceptions toward genetic modification. The identified factors are used in a cluster analysis that grouped consumers into segments of GM skepticism, government trust, health safety concern, and food and environmental safety concern. Socioeconomic characteristics differed significantly across segments. Consumer characteristics and perception factors influence consumers’ willingness to purchase GM banana. The institutional awareness and trust varied significantly across segments as well. The findings would be essential to policy makers when designing risk-communication strategies targeting different consumer segments to ensure proper discussion and addressing potential concerns about GM technology.     

Health risk communication using comparative risk analyses

The ability to communicate effectively the degree or magnitude of public exposures or health risks is essential for risk assessors and risk managers. Various guidelines exist for communicating environmental and public health risks, including recommended approaches for putting risk data into proper context. Although it remains unclear as to which approach is the most useful or appropriate under different circumstances, risk comparisons are a popular choice for conveying the significance of or providing a better perspective on a particular chemical exposure or health risk. In this paper, several different types of risk comparisons are described that are frequently used in the private and public sectors, and these are illustrated using a variety of examples from the literature. These approaches include: (1) intrachemical comparisons, (2) interchemical comparisons, (3) comparisons to background levels of risk, (4) comparisons to theoretical risks or safety levels, and (5) comparisons to other actions or activities. The primary purpose of this paper is to summarize and briefly discuss the advantages and limitations of these risk communication approaches. The evolving field of risk communication is also discussed, including ongoing research on public risk perceptions and alternative methods for communicating risk magnitudes and data uncertainties.     

Strategies for monitoring and managing mass populations of toxic cyanobacteria in recreational waters: a multi-interdisciplinary approach

Mass populations of toxin-producing cyanobacteria commonly develop in fresh-, brackish- and marine waters and effective strategies for monitoring and managing cyanobacterial health risks are required to safeguard animal and human health. A multi-interdisciplinary study, including two UK freshwaters with a history of toxic cyanobacterial blooms, was undertaken to explore different approaches for the identification, monitoring and management of potentially-toxic cyanobacteria and their associated risks. The results demonstrate that (i) cyanobacterial bloom occurrence can be predicted at a local- and national-scale using process-based and statistical models; (ii) cyanobacterial concentration and distribution in waterbodies can be monitored using remote sensing, but minimum detection limits need to be evaluated; (iii) cyanotoxins may be transferred to spray-irrigated root crops; and (iv) attitudes and perceptions towards risks influence the public's preferences and willingness-to-pay for cyanobacterial health risk reductions in recreational waters.     

Consumer perceptions of the effectiveness of food risk management practices: A cross-cultural study

Consumer perceptions of food hazards and how the associated risks are managed are likely to be an important determinant of consumer confidence in food safety. While there is a body of research that examines public perceptions of various types of food hazards, less attention has been directed to understanding how the public perceives food risk management practices. Utilizing elements of the repertory grid approach in focus group discussions, this research explored public attitudes regarding the effectiveness of current food risk management practices in four European countries (Denmark, Germany, Greece and the UK). While the issue of food safety did not emerge as a key factor in everyday food choice, participants were concerned about health aspects of food. There were three main factors that participants considered to be evidence of ‘good’ food risk management: the existence of identifiable control systems that respond quickly to contain a risk, the instigation of preventive measures and the availability of information that offers individuals the ability to exercise informed choice. These evaluations were similar in each of the countries under consideration and were linked to ideas regarding the controllability of risks and to questions of who is responsible for managing the risks.