Influence of facial skin attributes on the perceived age of Caucasian women

Background and objective The facial appearance of a person does not always reflect the chronological age; some people look younger or older than they really are. Many studies have described the changes in skin properties (colour, wrinkles, sagging, micro relief, etc.) with age, but few of them have analysed their influence on the perceived age. The primary objective of this study was to assess the contribution of individual skin attributes of the face on the perceived age of Caucasian women. Secondary objectives were to assess the influence of age and gender of graders with regard to the age perception. Subjects and method A random sample of 173 subjects of 20 to 74 years of age was taken from a database of more than 5000 healthy Caucasian women. A trained grader performed visual assessment of facial skin attributes (using a visual analogue scale), and a front face photograph was taken from each subject. Photographs were shown to 48 graders (20 men and 28 women, aged 22–64 years) who were asked to estimate the age of the subjects. Graders were classified as young (less than 35 years), middle age (35–50 years) and seniors (older than 50 years). Partial Least Square regression models were built to predict the chronological and the perceived age from the measured facial individual attributes. The contribution of each attribute within the regression model enabled to measure the relevance of this attribute with regards to age prediction. Results The eye area and the skin colour uniformity were the main attributes related to perceived age. For age prediction, older graders’ estimations were more driven by lips border definition shape and eyes opening, whereas younger graders’ (older than 50 years) estimations were more driven by dark circles, nasolabial fold and brown spots. There were statistically significant differences in graders’ age perception between gender and among age ranges. Our findings suggest that female graders are more accurate than male, and younger graders (under 35 years) are more accurate than older (over 50 years) to predict Caucasian women age from facial photographs. Conclusions Different skin attributes influence the estimation of age. These attributes have a different weight in the evaluation of the perceived age, depending on the age and of the observer. The most important attributes to estimate age are eyes, lips and skin colour uniformity.     

Visible changes of female facial skin surface topography in relation to age and attractiveness perception

Objectives Evolutionary psychology suggests that a woman’s age and physical appearance are important mate choice criteria. Given that changes in female facial skin surface topography are important, prominent visible signs of aging, male perceptual sensitivity for variation in this trait may also affect preference and attractiveness judgment. Methods Two experiments were conducted to investigate perception (Experiment 1) and noticeability (Experiment 2) of skin surface topography manipulations in facial images of six British women, aged 45–65 years. In Experiment 1 skin surface topography cues were completely removed on the cheeks, the “crow’s feet” area adjacent to the eye, under the eyes, above the upper lip, and on the forehead while, in Experiment 2, it was removed gradually (20% increments) on the forehead and around the eyes. In both experiments, stimuli were presented to American and German participants (total N = 300, aged 15–55 years) in omnibus pair‐wise combinations (within‐face). With each pair, respondents were asked to select that face which they considered as younger looking (Experiments 1 and 2) and more attractive (Experiment 1). Results Faces with skin surface topography cues removed were judged significantly younger and more attractive than their original (unmodified) counterparts, with modifications on the forehead and around the eyes showing the highest differences. In these areas, participants were able to detect at least a 20% visual change in skin surface topography. Conclusions The results support the assertion that even small changes in skin surface topography affect the perceptions of a woman’s facial age and attractiveness and may, thus, also influence men’s mate preferences.     

Interaction of skin color distribution and skin surface topography cues in the perception of female facial age and health

Background Skin color distribution and skin surface topography are the predominant drivers of the variation in visible skin condition, and this variation affects one’s perception of age and health. Recent research, however, has shown that the strength of the impact of these features on perception differs such that skin surface topography is a stronger indicator of age, while skin color distribution is more strongly linked to health perception. Objectives To examine further the relative contribution and interaction effects of skin color distribution and surface topography cues on perception by considering small changes of these features. Methods Two sets of images were created by gradually smoothing uneven skin color distribution and removing skin surface topography cues (both in 25% increments) in the digital image of the face of a 61‐year‐old British woman. Omnibus pairwise combinations of modified images were presented to a panel of 160 German men and women (aged 19–49 years). With each pair, they were asked to select the face they considered both younger‐looking and healthier. Results Female facial age perception was more strongly affected by the removal of skin surface topography cues than by changes in skin color distribution, particularly so for topography removal of 50% and more. In contrast, the smoothing of uneven skin color distribution had a stronger effect on the perception of female facial health, particularly for changes of 25% and greater. Conclusions These results support previous reports on the differential effects of visible skin color distribution and surface topography cues on the perception of female facial age and health and show that only relatively small changes are necessary to drive this differential perception.     

Visual attention to variation in female facial skin color distribution

Objectives  Visible skin condition of women is argued to influence human physical attraction. Recent research has shown that people are sensitive to variation in skin color distribution, and such variation affects visual perception of female facial attractiveness, healthiness, and age.
Methods  The eye gaze of 39 males and females, aged 13 to 45 years, was tracked while they viewed images of shape- and topography-standardized stimulus faces that varied only in terms of skin color distribution.
Results  The number of fixations and dwell time were significantly higher when viewing stimulus faces with the homogeneous skin color distribution of young people, compared with those of more elderly people. In accordance with recent research, facial stimuli with even skin tones were also judged to be younger and received higher attractiveness ratings. Finally, visual attention measures were negatively correlated with perceived age, but positively associated with attractiveness judgments.
Conclusions  Variation in visible skin color distribution (independent of facial form and skin surface topography) is able to selectively attract people's attention toward female faces, and this higher attention results in more positive statements about a woman's face.     

The effects of skin colour distribution and topography cues on the perception of female facial age and health

According to evolutionary psychology, the preference for some facial characteristics reflects adaptations for mate choice because they signal aspects of mate quality. Although morphological features such as facial symmetry and sexually dimorphic traits have been studied extensively in recent years, little is known about skin condition in this context. The preferences for young and healthy looking skin could offer an explanation as to why women place such an importance on the condition of their skin and its refinement through e.g., cosmetic products. Recent research showed that facial skin colour distribution significantly influences the perception of age and attractiveness of female faces, independent of skin surface topography cues. However, the relative effect of skin colour distribution and topography cues on age and health perception remains to be investigated. We present data showing that both skin colour distribution and skin surface topography cues not only significantly influence the perception of female facial age and health but also convey differential information with regard to the strength of these effects. Our data indicate that skin surface topography cues account for a large proportion of variation in facial age perception, whereas skin colour distribution seems to be a stronger health cue.     

Perceptions of sensitive skin: changes in perceived severity and associations with environmental causes

Background: The number of individuals who perceive themselves to have sensitive skin appear to be on the increase. A single definition of this condition remains elusive. Objectives: We used an epidemiological approach to evaluate the reasons why responders feel they have sensitive skin, how their skin has changed over time, and if there are sex, ethnic, and age group differences. Methods: A total of 1039 individuals filled out standard questionnaires. Respondents were not selected based on any criteria related to sensitive skin but consisted of individuals participating in other studies. Results: About 53% stated that their skin had been sensitive for more than 5 years, and 31% claimed that their skin has become more sensitive. When asked to describe why they have sensitive skin, severe weather was the reason most commonly selected. Visual (redness/swelling) and sensory (burning/stinging) reactions to products was also selected as the reason. Caucasians more often claimed that products produced visual effects, whereas African‐Americans more often claimed that products produced sensory effects. The environmental factor most strongly associated with sensitive skin was stress. Conclusions: Overall, the data support the generally accepted definition of sensitive skin as a reduced tolerance to cosmetics and toiletries; however, many individuals feel they have sensitive skin for other reasons unrelated to cosmetics and toiletries.     

Relationships between visual and tactile features and biophysical parameters in human facial skin

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Skin properties, such as colour, hydration and texture, can be studied on a qualitative basis by a clinical assessment or on a quantitative basis using techniques that measure biophysical properties of the skin. The aim of this study was to explore the links between facial skin features and a range of skin biophysical parameters using multivariate methods. METHODS: A study was conducted on 256 female volunteers from Ile-de-France with apparent healthy skin, aged between 20 and 50, under controlled environmental conditions (mean+/-standard deviation: room temperature 22.9+/-0.3 degrees C; relative humidity 48.5+/-2.3%). The study included a medical questionnaire and a clinical examination of the skin performed by a dermatologist, and a biophysical evaluation of the skin properties. Seventy visual and tactile skin features were assessed on the forehead and the cheek using ordinal variables illustrated by photographic scales. Twenty-eight biophysical measurements were taken in the same areas using the following equipment: Chromameter, Evaporimeter, Corneometer, Skicon, Sebumeter, Sebutape, skin thermometer, skin pH-meter and Silflo. In order to group the variables illustrating a same unimodal phenomenon, a typology of the skin features and a typology of the biophysical parameters were carried out using a clustering method. Then, the relationships between each group of clinical features and each group of biophysical parameters were studied using a series of partial least squares (PLS) regressions. RESULTS: From eight groups of clinical features and three groups of biophysical parameters that were identified, 12 significant PLS regression models were built. Our findings suggest that differences in chromametric measurements express not only differences in skin colour but also differences in skin surface properties, such as skin vascularity status, thickness, and existence of wrinkles, and also demonstrate that the level of sebum excretion can affect other aspects of the skin surface. CONCLUSION: Some skin features assessed clinically do not appear to be linked to any biophysical parameter. This finding confirms that certain phenomena evaluated on the basis of visual or tactile skin features are not assessed on the basis of the biophysical properties of the skin measured by our bioengineering techniques. Indeed, visual skin features mainly appreciate the skin surface aspect, contrary to some biophysical surrogate markers known to provide information on underlying epidermal structures. Therefore, both clinical and biophysical assessments must be associated to supply a relevant and accurate approach for skin aspect characterisation.     

Characterisation of gravity-induced facial skin oedema using biophysical measurement techniques

Background/aims: In humans, the microgravity environment can be expected to induce swelling of facial tissues and shrinking of the tissues in the lower limbs, together with a loss in body weight. To evaluate fluid shifts in skin, the head‐down bed‐rest model was used. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the appearance of facial oedema in subjects undergoing anti‐orthostatic bed‐rest at an angle of ?10°. Methods: The forehead of each of four subjects was measured before and after 1, 10 and 24 h in this head‐down tilt position. At these time points, interstitial fluid migration and facial oedema were assessed using a high resolution B‐scan ultrasound and a device for measuring the skin's mechanical properties. Results: The results obtained showed a progressive increase in dermal thickness and initial stress, and a reduction in stiffness and elasticity of the skin during the study period. Conclusions: This preliminary study has demonstrated the feasability of the method in measuring fluid displacement and retention in the skin. Furthermore, it highlights the influence of fluids on the mechanical behaviour of the skin. These techniques could be used for studying the redistribution of liquid masses during periods spent in space.     

Facial skin fluorescence as a marker of the skin's response to chronic environmental insults and its dependence on age

BACKGROUND: Throughout life facial skin is exposed to a variety of adverse environmental conditions and is constantly required to repair itself. The rate of epidermal cell proliferation is indicative of the skin's repair rate and can be monitored noninvasively in vivo using skin intrinsic fluorescence markers. OBJECTIVES: The goal of the present study was to assess the effects of ageing, geographical region, ethnic origin and season on the ability of facial skin to repair itself in the presence of chronic environmental insults using in vivo fluorescence spectroscopy. METHODS: Skin fluorescence emission was measured on the cheeks of 522 individuals in winter and repeated in summer in five different geographical locations in the Asia-Pacific region. Fluorescence emission was also measured from 80 caucasians of fair complexion in the United States (New Jersey area) on the face and on a relatively protected area (upper inner arm). The age range of the participants was 14-75 years. RESULTS: We found that epidermal proliferation rates decrease monotonically with age, while the fluorescence of collagen and elastin cross-links increases with age indicating accumulation of advanced glycation end-products. These trends were independent of geographical region, ethnic origin and season of measurement. Epidermal proliferation rates of facial skin were higher than those of unexposed sites; they may be 10 times higher in younger (second decade) than in older (seventh decade) individuals, and they decrease with age at rates 10 times faster compared with those of unexposed sites. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first time that epidermal proliferation and its dependence on ageing have been measured noninvasively on the human face. The higher tryptophan fluorescence values on the face vs. the protected site are indicative of accelerated rates of epidermal proliferation in the presence of chronic environmental insults. The repair potential of facial skin, i.e. its ability to maintain high proliferation rates, is maximal in younger populations and gradually decreases with age.     

痤疮患者皮肤生理功能测定

目的 探讨痤疮患者面部皮肤生理功能的特点，以期指导痤疮患者的治疗。方法 选取受试对象120例，试验组为痤疮患者60例，其中男20例，女40例，平均年龄23.4岁；对照组为健康志愿者60例，其中男20例，女40例，平均年龄25.1岁。运用无创性皮肤生理功能测试仪，测量受试者的面颊及T区（油脂分泌旺盛区域）皮肤油脂、面颊皮肤弹性和水分。结果 试验组面部T区油脂量为（199.98 ± 58.21） μg/cm2，健康对照组为（117.55 ± 63.16） μg/cm2，两组差异有统计学意义（t = 7.34，P < 0.05）。试验组面颊油脂量为（154.45 ± 55.06） μg/cm2，健康对照组为（87.50 ± 47.36） μg/cm2，两组差异有统计学意义（t = 7.14，P < 0.05）。试验组皮肤弹性（0.7931 ± 0.0755R）与健康对照组（0.7882 ± 0.0498R）比较，差异无统计学意义（P > 0.05），试验组皮肤水分（30.75% ± 3.87%）与健康对照组（30.94% ± 2.91%）比较，差异也无统计学意义（P > 0.05）。结论 痤疮患者颜面皮肤油脂分泌过多。     

Skin colorimetric parameters involved in skin age perception

Background/purpose: Age perception is based on a number of facial attributes such as wrinkles, skin gravity effects, feature lines, and skin optical appearance. The colorimetric and optical diffusion properties of skin have been compared with the consumer interpretation of ‘skin age’ of cheek area pictures without wrinkles or feature lines. Methods: Controlled lighting images of skin were taken with the Visia CR. Skin sections from the cheek area were selected without eye region wrinkles or naso‐labial lines for consumer interpretation. These same skin sections were analyzed for optical roughness and colorimetric parameters in the LCH color space, by distinguishing several roughness parameters according to their physical scale. Results: Three main optical parameters of skin were found to influence the consumer's interpretation of skin ‘visual age’: the chroma (color saturation), lightness, and the local light‐diffusing ability of skin. For the chroma and lightness, mainly large‐scale inhomogeneities in the 0.8–2 cm^?1 range are taken into account by the consumer. Surprisingly, variations in the skin hue show a total absence of correlation with the consumer grading.     

A study of differences in surface roughness between sun-exposed and unexposed skin with age

BACKGROUND: To understand and separate the roles of age and solar ultraviolet exposure (sun damage) on the surface roughness of skin. OBJECTIVES: To determine the effects of age and site (sun exposed vs. unexposed) on skin roughness in normal healthy subjects. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Using a stylus profilometer and silicone skin surface replicas, we have measured skin surface roughness parameters on habitually exposed (back of hand) and habitually unexposed (upper buttock) skin sites from the same individual in a sample of 73 subjects from the normal population. We compared the two sites in order to determine any differences in roughness caused, we postulate, by the effect of solar ultraviolet exposure on the exposed site. RESULTS: We found that the two sites are indistinguishable in roughness until after 30 years of age. For the over 30 years group, the difference between exposed and unexposed skin roughness correlated strongly with age. For all ages, skin roughness showed a positive correlation with age on the unexposed, but not the exposed, site. On the hand site subjects aged 40 years and older had significantly smoother skin than those aged less than 40 years, as measured by one roughness parameter. On the back, the older group had significantly rougher skin than the younger group measured by two roughness parameters. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that on the back of the hands, solar damage reverses or reduces the increase in roughness which would otherwise be caused by intrinsic ageing.