游泳池水中无机消毒副产物的离子色谱测定法

目的建立直接进样离子色谱法测定游泳池水中无机消毒副产物的方法。方法采用万通MIC离子色谱仪,进行简单样品前处理,检测游泳池水中无机消毒副产物含量。结果游泳池水中无机消毒副产物（DBP）的方法检出限为1．4～1．8μg／L,方法线性范围在0—200．0μg/L,精密度RSD小于4．1％,样品加标回收率为97．2％～100．6％。结论该方法灵敏度、准确度高,操作简便,具有较低的检出限,干扰少,可以满足游泳池水中无机消毒副产物（DBP）检测要求。     

Occurrence and speciation of chlorination byproducts in marine waters and sediments of a semi-enclosed bay exposed to industrial chlorinated effluents

Chlorination of seawater is one of the most effective technologies for industrial biofouling control. However, chlorination leads to the formation of halogenated chlorination byproducts (CBPs) associated with potential risks to environmental and human health. The present study investigated the occurrence and distribution of CBPs in the Gulf of Fos, a semi-enclosed bay where chlorinated effluents of multiple industrial plants are discharged. Seawater samples (surface and bottom) were collected at 24 sampling stations, with some near industrial outlets and others dispersed throughout the bay. Sediment samples were also collected at 10 sampling stations. Physicochemical parameters including water temperature, pH, salinity, bromide content, and free and total residual oxidant were determined. Several chemical classes of CBPs including trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, haloacetonitriles, trihaloacetaldehydes, and halophenols were analyzed. Bromoform was the most abundant CBP in seawater, and it was detected at most of the sampling stations of the bay with highest concentrations occurring near the industrial effluent outlets. Dibromoacetic acid was the second most abundant CBP at most of the sites followed by dibromoacetonitrile. Other detected CBPs included tribromoacetic acid, bromochloroacetonitrile, and bromal hydrate. To our knowledge, the concentration of the latter CBP was reported here for the first time in the context of industrial seawater chlorination. In sediments, two bromine-containing halophenols (2-chloro-4-bromophenol and 2,4,6-tribromophenol) were detected at two sampling stations. Ecotoxicological assays and risk assessment studies based on the detected environmental concentrations are warranted to elucidate the impacts of marine CBP contamination.     

Occurrence,origin, and toxicity of disinfection byproducts in chlorinated swimming pools: An overview

Disinfection treatments are critical to conserve the microbiological quality of swimming pool water and to prevent water-borne infections. The formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pools is an undesirable consequence resulting from reactions of disinfectants (e.g. chlorine) with organic and inorganic matter present in pool water, mainly brought by bathers. A considerable body of occurrence studies has identified several classes of DBPs in swimming pools with more than 100 compounds detected, mainly in chlorinated freshwater pools. Trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetaldehydes (HALs) are among the major DBPs in swimming pools. Other DBPs such as haloacetonitriles (HAN), haloamines, nitrosamines, and halobenzoquinones have also been detected. Researchers have been interested in identifying the precursors responsible for the formation of DBPs. In swimming pools, anthropogenic organic loads brought by swimmers increase the complexity of pool water chemistry. When human inputs (e.g. sweat, urine, hair, skin and personal care products) containing very diverse organic compounds are introduced to pools by swimmers, they react with chlorine resulting in the formation of complex mixtures of DBPs. The overwhelming majority of the total organic halide (TOX) content is still unknown in swimming pools. Exposure of swimmers to DBPs can take place through multiple routes, depending on the chemical properties of each DBP. Toxicological studies have shown that swimming pool water can be mutagenic with different potencies reported in different studies. Many DBPs have been shown to be genotoxic and carcinogenic. DBPs were also shown to induce reproductive and neurotoxic adverse effects in animal studies. Epidemiologic studies in humans have shown that exposure to DBPs increases the risk of respiratory adverse effects and bladder cancer. Association between DBPs and other health effects are still inconclusive. Data gathered in the present review (occurrence, toxicity, and toxicological reference values) could be used in conducting chemical risk assessment studies in swimming pools.     

典型村镇水厂复合二氧化氯饮用水消毒效果及副产物调查

目的调查典型村镇水厂应用化学法复合二氧化氯发生器运行状况、消毒效果和消毒剂副产物状况,分析其影响因素。方法选择我国西南某地10座典型村镇水厂,采集水源水、出厂水和末梢水检测微生物指标、ClO_2和Cl_2余量、CHCl_3、CCl_4、ClO_3~-和ClO_2~-4种消毒副产物指标。采用描述性分析和相关性分析。结果出厂水ClO_2余量浓度范围为0.13~0.7 mg/L,Cl_2为0.07~0.74 mg/L,ClO_2余量指标全部符合GB 5749—2006《生活饮用水卫生标准》要求;出厂水ClO_3~-和ClO_2~-浓度范围分别为0.07~3.2和0.05~1.48 mg/L,超标率分别为60%和10%;调查的10台复合二氧化氯发生器中ClO_2/Cl_2指标合格的比例为70%,2台设备达到ClO_2转化率指标合格标准;不同品牌化学法复合二氧化氯发生器ClO_2转化率指标有显著差异(P0.05)。结论化学法复合二氧化氯发生器用于饮用水消毒时应优先关注的消毒副产物为ClO_3~-;ClO_2转化率低可能是消毒副产物ClO_3~-超标的主要因素。     

游泳池水质理化和微生物的检测与分析

目的:了解杭州市上城区游泳池的水质卫生状况,为加强游泳池的卫生管理提供科学依据。方法:对上城区2008年-2010年3年的游泳池水质理化指标4项分别为:pH值、浑浊度、游离性余氯及尿素;微生物指标2项分别为:细菌总数及大肠菌群,采用国家标准检验方法进行检验,并对检测结果进行统计分析。结果:3年游泳池水合格率较高的是浑浊度与pH值均为100.0%;其次为大肠菌群合格率依次为100%、95.7%、97.9%和游离性余氯合格率依次为100%、87.1%、97.1%;较差的为细菌总数合格率依次为89.3%、94.8%、88.6%和尿素合格率依次为78.6%、87.1%、91.4%;3年水样总体合格率不高依次为82.1%、70.7%、77.1%。结论:上城区游泳池水质卫生状况不容乐观,应加大对游泳场所的卫生监督管理。     

2008-2010年杭州市萧山区游泳场所水质卫生监测结果分析

目的：了解杭州市萧山区游泳场所水质的卫生状况,为提高游泳场所卫生管理水平提供依据。方法：采样方法按照《公共场所卫生监测技术规范》（GB/T 17220-1998）执行,并按照《公共场所卫生标准检验方法》（GB/T 18204-2000）进行检验。检验结果依据《游泳场所卫生标准》（GB 9667-1996）进行判定。结果：萧山区2008-2010年游泳池水质监测合格率为89.46%,各年度监测合格率之间差异有统计学意义（χ2=8.073,P〈0.05）。各监测指标中,大肠菌群、浑浊度合格率均为100.00%,游离性余氯合格率为93.24%,尿素合格率为95.41%,细菌总数合格率为97.86%,各合格率之间差异有统计学意义（χ2=46.619,P〈0.05）。结论：萧山区仍需加强游泳场所的监督监测力度,尤其是对池水消毒和余氯监测的管理力度。     

Development of transient mutagenic activity following the chlorination of the sunscreen UV filter dioxybenzone (benzophenone-8) in bromide-rich water

The mutagenicity of four organic UV filters namely oxybenzone (benzophenone-3), dioxybenzone (benzophenone-8), avobenzone, and octyl methoxycinnamate, in chlorinated bromide-rich water (artificial seawater) was investigated. Mutagenicity was evaluated using Ames test in Salmonella typhimurium TA98 without S9 mix. Chemical analysis using high-resolution mass spectrometry was carried out to elucidate the mutagenic transformation products. Among the studied UV filters, only dioxybenzone exhibited a clear mutagenic activity following chlorination in seawater at ratio 1:10 (UV filter:chlorine). In contrast, no mutagenic activity was detected when chlorine was added at higher doses (ratio 1:1000). High-resolution mass spectrometry analysis showed that mutagenic extracts contained several brominated transformation products of dioxybenzone. Time course analysis of the transformation products at increasing chlorine doses showed that they were unstable and disappeared more quickly at higher chlorine doses. This instability explained the absence of mutagenic activity of dioxybenzone when 1000-fold excess chlorine was added, as no transformation products were detected. Relevance of these findings to the context of swimming pool is discussed. Further investigations taking into consideration the mutagenicity of not only the intermediate transformation products but also the final disinfection byproducts are needed to determine the overall impact of high levels of chlorine on the overall mutagenicity. This study highlights the importance of considering the reactivity of organic UV filters and their transformation products in disinfected recreational waters when sunscreen formulations are prepared.     

Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: a review

OBJECTIVES AND METHODS—Chlorination has been the major disinfectant process for domestic drinking water for many years. Concern about the potential health effects of the byproducts of chlorination has prompted the investigation of the possible association between exposure to these byproducts and incidence of human cancer, and more recently, with adverse reproductive outcomes. This paper evaluates both the toxicological and epidemiological data involving chlorination disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and adverse reproductive outcomes, and makes recommendations for future research.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS—Relatively few toxicological and epidemiological studies have been carried out examining the effects of DBPs on reproductive health outcomes. The main outcomes of interest so far have been low birth weight, preterm delivery, spontaneous abortions, stillbirth, and birth defects— in particular central nervous system, major cardiac defects, oral cleft, and respiratory, and neural tube defects. Various toxicological and epidemiological studies point towards an association between trihalomethanes (THMs), one of the main DBPs and marker for total DBP load, and (low) birth weight, although the evidence is not conclusive. Administered doses in toxicological studies have been high and even though epidemiological studies have mostly shown excess risks, these were often not significant and the assessment of exposure was often limited. Some studies have shown associations for DBPs and other outcomes such as spontaneous abortions, stillbirth and birth defects, and although the evidence for these associations is weaker it is gaining weight. There is no evidence for an association between THMs and preterm delivery. The main limitation of most studies so far has been the relatively crude methodology, in particular for assessment of exposure.
RECOMMENDATIONS—Large, well designed epidemiological studies focusing on well defined end points taking into account relevant confounders and with particular emphasis on exposure characterisation are ideally needed to confirm or refute these preliminary findings. In practice, these studies may be impracticable, partly due to the cost involved, but this is an issue that can be put right—for example, by use of subsets of the population in the design of exposure models. The studies should also reflect differences of culture and water treatment in different parts of the world. To identify the specific components that may be of aetiological concern and hence to fit the most appropriate exposure model with which to investigate human exposure to chlorinated DBPs, further detailed toxicological assessments of the mixture of byproducts commonly found in drinking water are also needed.


Keywords: disinfection byproducts; chlorination; reproductive health     

A systematic review of the evidence that swimming pools improve health and wellbeing in remote Aboriginal communities in Australia

Objective : To provide an overview of the evidence for health and wellbeing benefits associated with swimming pools in remote Aboriginal* communities in Australia. Methods : Peer‐reviewed and grey literature from 1990 to 2014 was searched to identify studies set in remote Australia that evaluated health and wellbeing benefits that have been associated with swimming pools. Studies were categorised using an evidence classification scale. Results : Twelve studies met our search criteria. All prospective studies that collected data on skin infections found access to swimming pools to be associated with a drop of skin sore prevalence and ‐where measured‐ severity. Studies documenting ear and eye infections showed mixed outcomes. Many wider community and wellbeing benefits were documented in various studies, although many of these were primarily anecdotal in nature. Conclusions : Although a case can be made regarding skin infections and the broader wellbeing benefits that swimming pools may bring to remote Aboriginal communities, the benefit to ear and eye health remains unresolved. Implications : The decision to provide swimming pools to remote Aboriginal communities should not hinge on the demonstration of direct health benefits alone. Equity considerations and the potential broader benefits such amenities may entail are equally important.     

Ecological association between childhood asthma and availability of indoor chlorinated swimming pools in Europe

Background

It has been hypothesised that the rise in childhood asthma in the developed world could result at least in part from the increasing exposure of children to toxic chlorination products in the air of indoor swimming pools.

Objectives

Ecological study to evaluate whether this hypothesis can explain the geographical variation in the prevalence of asthma and other atopic diseases in Europe.

Methods

The relationships between the prevalences of wheezing by written or video questionnaire, of ever asthma, hay fever, rhinitis, and atopic eczema as reported by the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC), and the number of indoor chlorinated swimming pools per inhabitant in the studied centres were examined. Associations with geoclimatic variables, the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, and several other lifestyle indicators were also evaluated.

Results

Among children aged 13–14 years, the prevalence of wheezing by written questionnaire, of wheezing by video questionnaire, and of ever asthma across Europe increased respectively by 3.39% (95% CI 1.96 to 4.81), 0.96% (95% CI 0.28 to 1.64), and 2.73% (95% CI 1.94 to 3.52), with an increase of one indoor chlorinated pool per 100 000 inhabitants. Similar increases were found when analysing separately centres in Western or Northern Europe and for ever asthma in Southern Europe. In children aged 6–7 years (33 centres), the prevalence of ever asthma also increased with swimming pool availability (1.47%; 95% CI 0.21 to 2.74). These consistent associations were not found with other atopic diseases and were independent of the influence of altitude, climate, and GDP per capita.

Conclusions

The prevalence of childhood asthma and availability of indoor swimming pools in Europe are linked through associations that are consistent with the hypothesis implicating pool chlorine in the rise of childhood asthma in industrialised countries.     

温州市区2006～2007年游泳场所水质检测结果分析

目的：调查分析温州市区2006年和2007年游泳场所水质的卫生状况;了解游泳池的水质污染情况。方法：按国家卫生标准方法GB/T18204-2000进行检验,按国家标准GB9667-1996进行结果评价。结果：2006年共对47家游泳池水质进行尿素、pH值、浑浊度、细菌总数及大肠菌群检测,全部项目合格的为39家,2007年共对28家游泳池水质进行尿素、pH值、浑浊度、细菌总数及大肠菌群检测,全部项目合格的为22家。结论：游泳池水质卫生存在一定的安全隐患。     

大连市2013年公共场所游泳池水质卫生抽检结果分析

目的通过分析大连市公用场所卫生抽检结果,为加强当地公共场所卫生监督管理提供科学依据。方法对大连市2013年33家游泳馆类场所69份游泳池水卫生质量监测结果进行分析。结果大连市2013年抽检69份游泳池水总合格率为78.26%,其中pH和尿素的合格率为94.20%,浑浊度的合格率为100.00%,游离性余氯的合格率为85.51%,细菌总数和大肠菌群的合格率为97.10%,两类场所游泳池水质结果比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。结论 2013年大连市的游泳池水质抽检结果不如上年,卫生部门应继续加强监督管理。     

2009—2011年佛山市禅城区游泳池水水质分析

目的分析佛山市禅城区游泳场所水质的卫生状况,为有效预防控制水介传染病提供科学依据。方法按国家卫生标准GB/T 18204-2000进行检验,按国家标准GB 9667-1996进行结果评价。结果 2009—2011年禅城区属游泳场所水质的合格率分别为59.18%,69.76%和80.65%。结论禅城区属游泳场所水质合格率虽然逐年升高,但仍然存在一定的安全隐患。     

上海市夏季游泳池水消毒副产物暴露水平及健康风险评估

目的研究上海市夏季游泳池水消毒副产物暴露水平及健康风险。方法于2016年7—8月,在上海市黄浦、静安、闵行和青浦4区各选择2家游泳场馆,以全部18个游泳池作为研究对象。检测游泳池水中消毒副产物三卤甲烷类(trihalomethanes,THMs,包括三氯甲烷、三溴甲烷、一氯二溴甲烷和二氯一溴甲烷)和卤代乙酸类(haloacetic acids,HAAs,包括一氯乙酸、二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸、一溴二氯乙酸和二溴乙酸)的浓度;基于问卷调查,对游泳池人群的消毒副产物暴露特征和水平进行评估,并评价其健康风险。结果除三溴甲烷未检出外,上海市夏季游泳池水中均检出其余8种消毒副产物。其中,三氯甲烷浓度为7.70~101.90μg/L;二溴一氯甲烷浓度为0.20~6.60μg/L;一溴二氯甲烷浓度为0.72~17.90μg/L;一氯乙酸浓度为5~88μg/L;二氯乙酸浓度为6.20~480.10μg/L;三氯乙酸浓度为7.60~613.30μg/L;一溴二氯乙酸浓度为4.17~17.60μg/L;二溴乙酸浓度为0.36~3.90μg/L。人群经皮肤和呼吸道暴露以三氯甲烷最高,人群平均致癌风险均小于1×10~(-5),非致癌风险远低于1。结论上海市夏季游泳池水人群消毒副产物经皮肤和呼吸道的致癌和非致癌风险都在可接受水平。     

循环风消毒与紫外线照射对烧伤病房空气消毒效果的比较

目的 探讨循环风消毒与紫外线照射对烧伤病房空气消毒的效果,为寻找安全、高效、方便的空气消毒方法、减少空气污染提供依据.方法 循环风消毒机和紫外线灯两种空气消毒方法对烧伤病房空气进行现场试验,对消毒即时,进人后30、60 min病房空气细菌进行采样,分析两组灭菌率.结果 消毒前菌落数循环风(856±99)CFU/m3和紫外线(860±100)CFU/m3比较,差异无统计学意义;消毒后菌落数循环风(102±35) CFU/m3明显少于紫外线(134±42)CFU/m3,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);两组消毒前后空气菌落数比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 两种消毒方法均有消毒效果,而循环风消毒效果持久,更适用于烧伤病房空气的消毒.     

2007年-2010年临海市游泳池水质卫生监测结果分析

目的:调查临海市2007年-2010年游泳场所水质的卫生状况。方法:游泳池水质按GB/T 18204-2000进行检验,按GB 9667-1996对结果进行评价。结果:2007年-2010年共检测游泳场所47家,检测水样143份,总合格率为35.7%。各年的合格率分别为34.0%、37.8%、38.5%、33.3%。各检测项目中,游离性余氯合格率最低,仅为39.9%。结论:临海市游泳场所水质卫生不容乐观,应加强游泳场所卫生管理,保障游泳者身心健康。     

2012—2013年北京市怀柔区游泳池水质卫生监测分析

目的了解北京市怀柔区游泳池水质卫生状况,预防传染性疾病的发生,保障游泳者的身体健康。方法 2012—2013年采集怀柔区6家游泳池水样,依据国家标准对pH值、浑浊度、尿素、游离性余氯、细菌总数、大肠菌群等项目进行检测。结果共检测水样246件,合格190件,合格率为77.2%,2年合格率差异有统计学意义（χ2=48.9,P〈0.05）。其中合格率最低的是游离氯和尿素,均为88.2%;其次是细菌总数,合格率为93.9%;6项指标合格率差异有统计学意义（χ2=87.054,P〈0.05）。游泳淡季合格率高于游泳旺季的合格率,二者差异有统计学意义（χ2=7.35,P〈0.05）。室内与室外游泳池水质合格率差异无统计学意义（χ2=2.68,P〉0.05）。不同星级宾馆的游泳池水质合格率差异有统计学意义（Z=4.210,P〈0.05）。结论怀柔区游泳池水质合格率不高,相关监管部门应加强对游泳池水质的监测工作,为游泳者提供一个健康的游泳环境。     

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia intestinalis in swimming pools, Atlanta, Georgia

Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia intestinalis have been found in swimming pool filter backwash during outbreaks. To determine baseline prevalence, we sampled pools not associated with outbreaks and found that of 160 sampled pools, 13 (8.1%) were positive for 1 or both parasites; 10 (6.2%) for Giardia sp., 2 (1.2%) for Cryptosporidium spp., and 1 (0.6%) for both.     

Trihalomethanes and associated potential cancer risks in the water supply in Ankara, Turkey

The occurrence of trihalomethanes (THMs) in the water supply in the Ankara, Turkey was investigated. Total THMs and total organic carbon measurements were carried seasonally in the samples collected form 22 different districts along with the samples taken from the Ivedik Water Treatment Plant serving 90% of the city. The average summer nonpurgeable organic carbon (NPOC) concentration in the raw water was 4.2 mg/L, and the NPOC removal achieved in the treatment plant was 31%. The concentration of total THMs ranged from 25 to 74 μg/L, from 28 to 73 μg/L, and from 25 to 110 μg/L in winter, spring, and summer, respectively. In all of the samples chloroform existed at the highest concentrations, while bromoform was almost absent. The total THM concentrations were highest in summer for all districts. However, none of the concentrations detected exceeded the USEPA's Stage I limit of 80 μg/L and the EU's limit of 100 μg/L. However, the total THM level in 64% of the districts exceeded the USEPA's Stage II limit of 40 μg/L. The risk estimations carried out indicated that each year 1 of the 5 million Ankara residents could get cancer from the daily intake of water, mainly because of exposure to chloroform through oral ingestion.