Explaining disparities in HIV infection among black and white men who have sex with men: a meta-analysis of HIV risk behaviors

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors that contribute to the racial disparity in HIV prevalence between black and white men who have sex with men (MSM) in the United States. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search of electronic databases, online bibliographies, and publication reference lists yielded 53 quantitative studies of MSM published between 1980 and 2006 that stratified HIV risk behaviors by race. Meta-analyses were performed to compare HIV risks between black and white MSM across studies. RESULTS: Compared with white MSM, black MSM reported less overall substance use [odds ratio (OR), 0.71; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.53-0.97], fewer sex partners (OR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.45-0.92), less gay identity (OR, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.17-0.48), and less disclosure of same sex behavior (OR, 0.42; 95% CI, 0.30-0.60). HIV-positive black MSM were less likely than HIV-positive white MSM to report taking antiretroviral medications (OR, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.30-0.61). Sexually transmitted diseases were significantly greater among black MSM than white MSM (OR, 1.64; 95% CI, 1.07-2.53). There were no statistically significant differences by race in reported unprotected anal intercourse, commercial sex work, sex with a known HIV-positive partner, or HIV testing history. CONCLUSIONS: Behavioral risk factors for HIV infection do not explain elevated HIV rates among black MSM. Continued emphasis on risk behaviors will have only limited impact on the disproportionate rates of HIV infection among black MSM. Future research should focus on the contribution of other factors, such as social networks, to explain racial disparities in HIV infection rates.     

Global epidemiology of HIV infection in men who have sex with men

Epidemics of HIV in men who have sex with men (MSM) continue to expand in most countries. We sought to understand the epidemiological drivers of the global epidemic in MSM and why it continues unabated. We did a comprehensive review of available data for HIV prevalence, incidence, risk factors, and the molecular epidemiology of HIV in MSM from 2007 to 2011, and modelled the dynamics of HIV transmission with an agent-based simulation. Our findings show that the high probability of transmission per act through receptive anal intercourse has a central role in explaining the disproportionate disease burden in MSM. HIV can be transmitted through large MSM networks at great speed. Molecular epidemiological data show substantial clustering of HIV infections in MSM networks, and higher rates of dual-variant and multiple-variant HIV infection in MSM than in heterosexual people in the same populations. Prevention strategies that lower biological transmission and acquisition risks, such as approaches based on antiretrovirals, offer promise for controlling the expanding epidemic in MSM, but their potential effectiveness is limited by structural factors that contribute to low health-seeking behaviours in populations of MSM in many parts of the world.     

Dynamic social support networks of younger black men who have sex with men with new HIV infection

Rising rates of HIV infection among younger black men who have sex with men (YBMSM) in the USA have generated a public health emergency. Living with HIV requires deep and persistent social support often available only from close confidants. Enlisting endogenous support network members into the care of HIV-infected YBMSM may help shape sustainable supportive environments, leading to long-term improvements in mental and HIV-specific health outcomes. The present study examined trends in support network change over time after new HIV diagnoses among 14 YBMSM. Participants completed a social network survey that utilized sociograms to record support confidants (SCs) preceding HIV diagnosis and at one and nine months postdiagnosis. Reported SCs included family of origin, friends, sex partners, and other associates. Analysis revealed three distinct patterns of change: high gain, high turnover, and stable networks. These patterns offer valuable insights into the social support of YBMSM during the period following diagnosis. This research underscores a growing movement to embrace key support figures in the lives of YBMSM, who may be critical to promoting overall health and adherence to HIV-care.     

High HIV infection prevalence in a group of men who have sex with men

Brazil is characterized by a concentrated AIDS epidemic, it has a prevalence of less than 1% in the general population. However, there are higher rates in specific populations, especially in men who have sex with men. The study's aim was to analyze the association between sociodemographic characteristics, sexual practices, sexual behaviors and the HIV infection in a group of men who have sex with men. Secondary data was collected between June 2014 and September 2015 in a research of cross-sectional design in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Volunteers answered an online computerized questionnaire and took HIV test. Chi-squared distribution and multiple logistic regression was used. There were 341 participants. Most of them were racially mixed, single, average age of 30.6 years and with a higher education level. The HIV prevalence was 13.9%. Two logistic models were fit (insertive or receptive anal intercourse). Both models showed an association with HIV among those who had a HIV positive sexual partner (Odds Ratio ≈ 2.5) and a high self-perception of acquiring HIV (Model 1: Odds Ratio ≈ 7/Model 2: Odds Ratio ≈ 10). Low condom usage in receptive anal intercourse with casual partners had a direct association with HIV seropositivity, whereas insertive anal intercourse with casual partners with or without condoms were inversely related. The study identified a high prevalence of HIV infections among a group of men who sex with men with a high self-perception risk of acquiring HIV. The findings also showed a relation with sociodemographic and sexual behavior variables.     

Risk of HIV infection attributable to oral sex among men who have sex with men and in the population of men who have sex with men

We examined HIV infection and estimated the population-attributable risk percentage (PAR%) for HIV associated fellatio among men who have sex with other men (MSM). Among 239 MSM who practised exclusively fellatio in the past 6 months, 50% had three partners, 98% unprotected; and 28% had an HIV-positive partner; no HIV was detected. PAR%, based on the number of fellatio partners, ranges from 0.10% for one partner to 0.31% for three partners. The risk of HIV attributable to fellatio is extremely low.     

HIV risk among men who have sex with men who have experienced childhood sexual abuse: systematic review and meta-analysis

Previous research has indicated a high prevalence of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) among men who have sex with men (MSM) in the United States, and has suggested that CSA history is a risk factor for HIV infection in MSM. We conducted a systematic review to identify, synthesize, meta-analyze, and critique the current state of relevant literature. Systematic review methodology was utilized to identify 12 studies that compared MSM with a history of CSA to MSM without a history of CSA on HIV risk indicators including HIV serostatus, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), sexual behaviors, and illicit drug use. Overall, 27.3% (n = 4,263) of the MSM in all included studies (n = 15,622) reported a CSA history. Across the studies that used probabilistic sampling (n = 8,240), the estimated prevalence of CSA was 21.8% (n = 1,800). Meta-analysis indicated that MSM with CSA history were more likely to be HIV positive [odds ratio (OR) = 1.54; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.22-1.95)] and to engage in recent unprotected anal intercourse (OR = 1.85, 95% CI = 1.36-2.51). Studies also indicated that MSM with a history of CSA were more likely to report frequent casual male partners, substance use, and sex while under the influence of alcohol or other drugs. Trends across studies indicated a need for interventions to assess CSA history and address effects of CSA on sexual risk behavior of MSM. Inconsistencies across studies indicated a need to reach consensus among researchers and providers in defining CSA.     

Risk factors for HIV infection among men who have sex with men

OBJECTIVES: Risk factors for HIV acquisition were examined in a recent cohort of men who have sex with men (MSM). DESIGN: A longitudinal analysis of 4295 HIV-negative MSM enrolled in a randomized behavioral intervention trial conducted in six US cities. METHODS: MSM were enrolled and assessed for HIV infection and risk behaviors semi-annually, up to 48 months. RESULTS: In multivariate analysis, men reporting four or more male sex partners, unprotected receptive anal intercourse with any HIV serostatus partners and unprotected insertive anal intercourse with HIV-positive partners were at increased risk of HIV infection, as were those reporting amphetamine or heavy alcohol use and alcohol or drug use before sex. Some depression symptoms and occurrence of gonorrhea also were independently associated with HIV infection. The attributable fractions of high number of male partners, use of alcohol or drugs before sex, and unprotected receptive anal intercourse with unknown status partners and the same with presumed negative partners accounted for 32.3, 29.0, 28.4 and 21.6% of infections, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The challenge is to develop strategies to identify men in need. Interventions are needed to help men reduce their number of sexual partners, occurrences of unprotected anal intercourse, alcohol or drug use before sex and address other mental health issues.     

Increases in HIV incidence among men who have sex with men undergoing repeat diagnostic HIV testing in Ontario,Canada

OBJECTIVE: To estimate HIV incidence density for different exposure categories among people undergoing repeat testing in Ontario, Canada. METHODS: Persons using voluntary, diagnostic HIV testing at least twice were identified by computerized and manual record linkage. In the 1992-2000 period, 980 seroconverters and 340 994 repeat negative testers contributed 936 145 person years (PY) of observation. Incidence density (ID) was calculated according to Kitayaporn et al. Poisson regression was used to evaluate differences in incidence. RESULTS: Among men who have sex with men (MSM), ID declined between 1992-1996, from 1.23 per 100 PY in 1992 to 0.79 per 100 PY in 1996 [relative risk (RR), 0.86 per year; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.77-0.96]. Subsequently, ID increased to 1.39 per 100 PY in 1999 (RR, 1.18 per year; 95% CI, 1.05-1.34). In 2000, ID was 1.16 per 100 PY but this decrease was not statistically significantly different from 1999. MSM in their twenties had the highest ID in 1992-1996, but in 1996-2000 MSM in their thirties had the highest risk of infection. Among injecting drug users (IDU), ID decreased from 0.64 per 100 PY in 1992 to 0.14 per 100 PY in 2000 (RR, 0.87 per year; 95% CI, 0.80-0.94). Among heterosexuals, annual incidence remained constant at about 0.03 per 100 PY in 1992-2000. CONCLUSIONS: Increases in ID were identified among MSM from 1996 to 1999. These findings are consistent with other research. Continued vigilance and improved surveillance are needed to better understand and control the epidemic.     

沈阳市男男性行为人群HIV感染率及其影响因素分析

目的了解沈阳市男男性行为人群（MSM）艾滋病病毒（HIV）感染率及其影响因素,进一步做好MSM的艾滋病防治工作。方法采用同伴推动法（RDS）招募900名MSM,由经过专业培训的调查员进行面对面的问卷调查,主要内容包括社会人口学特征、艾滋病知识知晓水平、性行为状况、接受干预服务情况和HIV/梅毒感染状况,并抽取静脉血检测HIV及梅毒,对影响HIV感染的相关因素进行χ2检验。结果调查了900名MSM,艾滋病知识知晓率达到91.3%。86.9%的调查对象最近6个月有同性肛交性行为,最近6个月与男性发生肛交性行为时每次都使用安全套的比例为57.5%。HIV感染率为9.3%,梅毒感染率为11.0%。分析显示,年龄较大、文化程度在初中及以下、最近6个月与男性发生肛交性行为时未坚持使用安全套、梅毒感染是感染HIV的危险因素。结论 MSM人群高危性行为发生率、HIV和梅毒感染率均高,可能成为当前HIV流行的重要人群和重要因素,应采取积极有效的宣传教育和行为干预活动。     

High HIV, hepatitis C and sexual risks among drug-using men who have sex with men in northern Thailand

BACKGROUND: Men who have sex with men (MSM) and who use drugs have shown high HIV risks in Europe, and the Americas. We investigated MSM-drug user demographics, HIV sexual and drug use risks and behaviors in Chiang Mai, northern Thailand to identify prevention targets. METHODS: A total of 2005 males aged 13 years and older were enrolled during inpatient drug treatment from 1999-2000 and assessed for HIV, hepatitis C virus (HCV), syphilis, and for demographics and risks by questionnaire. Data were analyzed using chi and multiple logistic regression to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: Of 2005 males in treatment, 1752 (87.4%) had ever had sex, and 66 of 1752 (3.8%) reported ever having sex with another man; mostly Katoey (transgendered male) partners. MSM had higher HIV rates (OR, 2.32; 95% CI, 1.36-3.96) and were younger (P = 0.002); more likely to be Thai (P < 0.0001); better educated (P < 0.0001); had more lifetime sex partners (P < 0.0001), more female partners (P = 0.002), more female paid partners (P < 0.0001), and been paid for sex (P < 0.0001). MSM were more likely to have ever injected (P < 0.0001), sold drugs, been in prison, injected in prison, used heroin, and to have HCV (OR, 2.59; 95% CI, 1.55-4.34). CONCLUSIONS: Northern Thai MSM-drug users are at high HIV and HCV risk. In addition to sex risks with men, they have more sex with women and sex workers than other men, which fits Thai MSM patterns but not Western ones. Prevention must take into account their high rates of substance use and multiple partner types.     

Sexual dysfunction, HIV, and AIDS in men who have sex with men

HIV infection is associated with sexual dysfunction. Using validated instruments, we investigated the relationship between HIV/AIDS and sexual function in a contemporary cohort of men who have sex with men (MSM). An anonymous Internet-based survey was disseminated to MSM via organizations and social networking sites that cater to this population. Information on ethnodemographic variables, health status (including HIV status, disease stage, and other health conditions), and sexual behavior was collected. Men were categorized as HIV-negative, HIV-positive/AIDS-negative, or HIV-positive /AIDS-positive. A modified validated version of the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF) for use in MSM and the Premature Ejaculation Diagnostic Tool (PEDT) were used to stratify risk of sexual dysfunction. The study cohort included 1361 men (236 of whom were HIV-positive) who provided complete data on HIV status, IIEF, and PEDT. There was a significant trend toward greater prevalence of erectile dysfunction (ED) in men with progressive HIV infection 40-59 years of age relative to age matched HIV-negative men (p=0.02). In a logistic regression model controlling for other variables, HIV infection without AIDS was not associated with greater odds of ED; however, HIV infection with AIDS was associated with greater odds of ED (p=0.006). In a separate logistic regression model, HIV infection with or without AIDS was not significantly associated with greater odds of premature ejaculation (p>0.05). Use of phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitor drugs was much more common in HIV-infected men. HIV infection is a risk factor for poorer sexual function primarily due to higher risk of erectile dysfunction in men with AIDS.     

苏州市男男性行为人群HIV感染的配比病例对照研究

目的探讨苏州市男男性行为人群（MSM）艾滋病病毒（HIV）感染的危险因素。方法采用时间序列病例对照的研究方法,病例来源于2008年5月至2009年7月间苏州MSM人群调查中新发现的HIV感染者,对照为按入组时间进行1∶4匹配的HIV抗体阴性者;问卷调查收集人口学、行为学信息等信息。数据分析运用条件Logistic回归模型。结果共获得病例58人,对照232人。单因素结果显示,与HIV感染相关的因素有大专及以上文化程度（OR=0.40,95%CI：0.20,0.78）、外地户籍（OR=2.19,95%CI：1.05,4.55）、最近6月内有5个及以上同性性伴（OR=2.29,95%CI：1.15,4.56）、最近6月内与同性发生被插入性肛交（OR=2.30,95%CI：1.16,4.59）、最近6月内与同性肛交从不/偶尔使用安全套（OR=4.20,95%CI：1.95,9.08）、感染梅毒（OR=2.28,95%CI：1.17,4.41）;多因素分析表明,大专及以上文化程度（OR=0.45,95%CI：0.21,0.98）是MSM人群HIV感染的保护因素,而肛交从不/偶尔使用安全套（OR=3.76,95%CI：1.60,8.84）是MSM人群HIV感染的危险因素。结论文化程度高是MSM HIV感染的保护因素,而肛交不用安全套是MSM HIV感染的危险因素;需要针对MSM人群开展强化安全套使用的干预。