Effect of maternal herpes simplex virus (HSV) serostatus and HSV type on risk of neonatal herpes

BACKGROUND: Neonatal herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a rare but devastating disease. We have conducted pooled analyses of data from 3 cohorts to evaluate the effects of maternal HSV serostatus and HSV type on risk of neonatal HSV acquisition and severity. METHODS: Data from cohorts in Seattle, WA, and Stanford, CA, USA, and Stockholm, Sweden were pooled using Mantel-Haenszel methods. RESULTS: Seventy-eight infants with documented neonatal HSV and known maternal HSV serostatus were included. The risk of neonatal HSV-2 infection was similar in infants born to HSV seronegative women compared with HSV-1 seropositive women (pooled OR: 1.6; 95% CI: 0.6-4.0). The odds of neonatal HSV infection was increased in the presence of exposure to maternal HSV-1 versus HSV-2 (adjusted pooled OR: 19.2; 95% CI: 5.8-63.6). An elevated odds of disseminated HSV in infants born to women with newly acquired genital herpes was observed in Stockholm (OR=13.5; 95% CI: 1.4-630), but not in Seattle or Stanford. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that maternal HSV-1 antibody offers little, if any, protection against neonatal HSV-2 infection. During reactivation, HSV-1 appears more readily transmissible to the neonate than HSV-2, a concerning finding given the rising frequency of genital HSV-1 infection.     

Herpes simplex virus in pregnancy: new concepts in prevention and management

Genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection is one of the most common viral sexually transmitted diseases in the United States. It is estimated that 45 million adolescents and adults are infected with genital HSV. Most genital herpes infections in the United States are caused by HSV type 2 (HSV-2), and 25% to 30% of women of reproductive age have HSV-2 antibodies. What is more striking is that genital herpes is frequently under-recognized, and that only 5% to 10% of these women have a history of genital herpes. Because such a small percentage of women are aware of being infected with HSV, the risk of maternal transmission of this virus to the fetus or newborn is a significant health issue.     

Valacyclovir prophylaxis to prevent recurrent herpes at delivery: a randomized clinical trial

OBJECTIVE: To measure the efficacy of valacyclovir suppression in late pregnancy to reduce the incidence of recurrent genital herpes in labor and subsequent cesarean delivery. METHODS: A total of 350 pregnant women with a history of genital herpes were assigned randomly to oral valacyclovir 500 mg twice a day or an identical placebo from 36 weeks of gestation until delivery. In labor, vulvovaginal herpes simplex virus (HSV) culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) specimens were collected. Vaginal delivery was permitted if no clinical recurrence or prodromal symptoms were present. Neonatal HSV cultures and laboratory tests were obtained, and infants were followed up for 1 month after delivery. Data were analyzed using chi2 and Student t tests. RESULTS: One hundred seventy women treated with valacyclovir and 168 women treated with placebo were evaluated. Eighty-two percent of the women had recurrent genital herpes; 12% had first episode, nonprimary genital herpes; and 6% had first episode, primary genital herpes. At delivery, 28 women (8%) had recurrent genital herpes requiring cesarean delivery: 4% in the valacyclovir group and 13% in the placebo group (P = .009). Herpes simplex virus was detected by culture in 2% of the valacyclovir group and 9% [corrected] of the placebo group (P =.02). No infants were diagnosed with neonatal HSV, and there were no significant differences in neonatal complications. There were no significant differences in maternal or obstetric complications in either group. CONCLUSION: Valacyclovir suppression after 36 weeks of gestation significantly reduces HSV shedding and recurrent genital herpes requiring cesarean delivery. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: I.     

Asymptomatic neonatal contamination with herpes simplex virus

Frequent maternal vaginal and/or lesion cultures for herpes simplex virus (HSV) were obtained from a high-risk maternal population during the course of pregnancy and from oropharyngeal samples of their newborn infants on the first day of life to determine (1) the incidence of asymptomatic neonatal contamination with HSV and (2) the relationship of neonatal with maternal colonization. Four hundred ninety-nine maternal cultures were obtained from 85 patients. The mean number of cultures per patient was six with a range from one to 12. Thirty-three mothers had 41 positive cultures. Fifty-two women had 301 negative cultures. Cord blood HSV-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) titers were not different in the two groups of infants (geometric mean titer 1152 and 800, respectively). One infant from each maternal group had a positive oropharyngeal HSV culture. Both infants were asymptomatic. One was delivered by elective cesarean section at term to a mother with four positive cultures obtained during pregnancy. Fetal membranes were intact until delivery. The second infant with a positive oropharyngeal culture on the first day of life was born vaginally to a mother with seven negative cultures during pregnancy. Repeat cultures on both infants during the first week of life were negative. These data indicate that asymptomatic neonatal contamination with HSV does occur in oropharyngeal samples obtained on the first day of life. The data also suggest that there is a poor relationship of viral excretion during pregnancy or the mode of delivery with neonatal contamination. Further data are required to determine the incidence of asymptomatic neonatal contamination and the relationship of maternal with neonatal cultures.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Genital herpes complicating pregnancy

Approximately 22% of pregnant women are infected with herpes simplex virus (HSV)-2, and 2% of women will acquire HSV during pregnancy. Remarkably, up to 90% of these women are undiagnosed because they are asymptomatic or have subtle symptoms attributed to other vulvovaginal disorders. Diagnosis of genital herpes relies on laboratory confirmation with culture or polymerase chain reaction assay of genital lesions and type-specific glycoprotein G-based serologic testing. Neonatal herpes is the most severe complication of genital HSV infection and is caused by contact with infected genital secretions at the time of labor. Maternal acquisition of HSV in the third trimester of pregnancy carries the highest risk of neonatal transmission. Despite advances in the diagnosis and treatment of neonatal herpes, little change in the incidence or serious sequelae from this infection has occurred. As such, prevention of the initial neonatal infection is critically important. Obstetricians are in a unique position to prevent vertical HSV transmission by identifying women with genital lesions at the time of labor for cesarean delivery, prescribing antiviral suppressive therapy as appropriate, and avoiding unnecessary invasive intrapartum procedures in women with genital herpes. Enhanced prevention strategies include identification of women at risk for HSV acquisition during pregnancy by testing women and possibly their partners for HSV antibodies and providing counseling to prevent transmission to women in late pregnancy.     

Mode of delivery and level of passive immunity against herpes simplex virus

The level of passive neonate protection against HSV depends on the transplacentally acquired neutralized HSV antibodies' titer. In this study we investigated the anti HSV antibodies' transplacental passage in a group of women who delivered vaginally and pregnant women who had cesarean section, with the aim of examining the influence of the mode of delivery on the level of passive immunity to HSV. Serologic examination was performed in a group of 102 women who delivered vaginally and 80 pregnant women who had cesarean section, using the test of microneutralization. The titer of anti HSV type 1 and anti HSV type 2 antibodies in the mothers' and cord blood was determined and compared. The cord serum neutralizing HSV type 1 antibodies' titer, was twice higher as compared to those in mothers blood in 60.7% of paired sera in the group of women who delivered vaginally. The cord serum anti HSV type 1 titers were twice as high as compared to those in mothers' blood only in 15.5% of paired sera in group of pregnant women who had cesarean section. In the cases when cesarean section was performed, our results showed the lack of anti HSV type 2 antibodies in 15% of cord sera, even though the mothers' sera were anti HSV type 2 positive. The results of this study point to the possibility that antibody transfer through the placenta is an active and selective process that depends also on the mode of delivery: there are lower levels of HSV neutralizing antibodies in the cord sera of infants whose mothers had cesarean section compared to those who delivered vaginally.     

Seroprevalence, incidence of prenatal infections and reliability of maternal history of varicella zoster virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus and parvovirus B19 infection in South-Western Finland

Objective   To study seroprevalence and incidence and fetal transmission of varicella zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 1 and 2 and parvovirus B19 infections during pregnancy and to evaluate the reliability of maternal past history of VZV, HSV and parvovirus infections.
Design   Prospective study of parturient women.
Setting   South-Western Finland.
Participants   Five hundred and fifty-eight parturient women.
Methods   IgG and IgM antibodies against VZV, CMV, HSV-1 and -2, and parvovirus B19 were measured from maternal serum in the first trimester and at delivery and from cord serum, mother's own information of her past infections was compared with her serological status.
Main outcome measures   Seroprevalence, seroconversions and fetal transmission of VZV, CMV, HSV and parvovirus B19, reliability of maternal history of VZV, HSV and parvovirus B19.
Results   Seroprevalences were 96.2% for VZV, 56.3% for CMV, 54.3% for HSV, 46.8% for HSV-1, 9.3% for HSV-2 and 58.6% for parvovirus B19. Parity was associated with CMV seropositivity, maternal age differed only between HSV-2 seropositive and seronegative women, while area of residence (urban or rural) had no effect. Six seroconversions were observed: two VZV, one CMV and three parvovirus infections. No cases of primary HSV infections occurred. Fetal transmission was observed in two cases of parvovirus infection. No infants with anti-CMV IgM antibodies were born to CMV immunised women. False positive history of chickenpox was given only by 1.5% of the women, history of herpes infections was less reliable, and history of parvovirus infection was unreliable.
Conclusions   Seroprevalence and the risk of viral infections during pregnancy cannot be extrapolated from one pregnant population to another.     

Herpesvirus

Herpesvirus (HSV) infection of the genital tract is a sexually transmitted disease that is increasing at an epidemic rate. 2 types of virus, Type 1 (HSV-1) and Type 2 (HSV-2) have been identified, of which HSV-2 is the major cause of genital and neonatal infection. Type 2 herpes infections may be the 2nd most common venereal disease in the US. More than 60% of the adult US population has antibodies to HSV, and socioeconomic factors have been found to influence the incidence of HSV infection. The precise incidence of genital herpes in the US is not known, but in 1979 there were 29.2/100,000 consultations for genital herpes, compared to 3.4/100,000 in 1966. As many as 20 million people have herpes, and there are 5 million new cases/year. Genital herpes occurs more frequently in a sexually active population. Clinical manifestations depend on the immune status of the individual and may be 1st episode primary genital herpes, 1st episode nonprimary genital herpes, or recurrent disease. 85% of primary 1st episode genital herpes are caused by HSV-2, the attack rate for susceptible sexual contacts from individuals with active genital lesions is approximately 75%, and the incubation period averages 6 days. 1st episode primary disease may produce severe localized symptoms as well as systemic symptoms. Complete resolution of lesions takes up to 6 weeks, and symptoms persist for an average of 13.8 days. 1st episode nonprimary genital herpes and recurrent disease have similar clinical courses, with ususally mild local symptoms lasting on average 6.9 days, no systemic symptoms, 1-3 lesions, complete resolution of lesions in 8 days, short duration of viral shedding, and presence of preexisting HSV antibodies. Possible complications of genital herpes infections include urethral and bladder infections and secondary bacterial skin infections, inflammatory radiculomyelitis, transverse myelitis, and aseptic meningitis. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses are important. The majority of infections are diagnosed clinically. Viral culture is the most reliable laboratory technique. Other venereal diseases commonly coexist with genital herpes. To date there is no effective topical therapy for recurrent genital herpes. Cesarean section has been recommended to avoid infecting infants of infected mothers during delivery. Psychological and emotional problems caused by fears of infecting a sexual partner and increased risk of genital cancer in women are among longterm sequelae of genital herpes.     

Diagnosis of genital herpes: the role and place of HSV testing in clinical practice

Genital herpes is caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 and HSV-2. It is an underdiagnosed and undertreated sexually transmitted infection characterised by latency followed by reactivation. The seroprevalence of both types of HSV varies throughout Europe, and HSV-1 is an increasing cause of genital herpes. Transmission is through skin-to-skin contact, and neonatal herpes resulting from transmission during delivery is a particularly serious problem. Diagnosis of genital herpes is not straightforward, and a clinical diagnosis alone is usually insufficient. Correct diagnosis is essential for appropriate management and reduction of transmission. Laboratory diagnosis can be by direct detection of the virus or indirect measurement of antibodies. Direct testing has traditionally been through culture of the virus, but detection of viral nucleic acids by real-time polymerase chain reaction is now considered the gold standard method. Type-specific serological testing based on glycoprotein G also has a role in asymptomatic patients or those with non-specific symptoms and in identifying serodiscordant couples, pregnant women at risk and patients co-infected with HIV and HSV-2. Having made an accurate diagnosis, effective management of genital herpes is by treatment with an oral antiviral agent and patient counselling.     

Characteristics and management of pregnancy in women with genital herpes simplex virus infection

The natural history of genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections was investigated in 83 pregnancies in 78 women, and the information was used to determine the need for cesarean section in these women. We studied 163 recurrent episodes with HSV cultures from the cervix and from vulvar lesions every 1 to 3 days. Cervical HSV cultures were obtained weekly from asymptomatic women beginning at 32 weeks' gestation, and 14/462 (3.03%) of these cultures were positive. Cervical cultures obtained during culture-positive vulvar recurrences demonstrated concomitant cervical HSV shedding in 25/165 (15.2%) cultures. Mean duration of 26 genital HSV recurrences was 4.6 +/- 2.8 days with a range of 1 to 13 days. The mean interval between culture-positive HSV recurrences was 59.2 +/- 42.1 days, but many (14/76 = 18%) intervals were less than 21 days. Viral cultures were already positive in 92.3% of cases after 4 days' incubation, so they could be used effectively to determine route of delivery. Following a cautious set of criteria for vaginal delivery in these women, 69.1% were delivered of their infants vaginally and no neonatal morbidity caused by HSV was encountered. Information about the natural history of genital HSV infections obtained from frequent third-trimester viral cultures can be used to manage pregnancy and will reduce the need for cesarean section while avoiding neonatal HSV morbidity.     

Management of genital herpes simplex virus infection occurring during pregnancy

Genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection during pregnancy has caused considerable concern among lay and professional personnel in the past 10 years. Knowledge concerning the potential hazards of HSV to the newborn infant has increased the use of cesarean section for women who have or are suspected of having genital HSV infection near or at the time of labor. Because of this, a 57-month prospective study was begun at Vanderbilt University Hospital and its affiliate, Nashville General Hospital, January 1, 1976, and involved HSV culturing of all suspected genital herpes lesions during pregnancy. Those patients with positive HSV cultures prior to labor and without a subsequent negative culture underwent cesarean section. Those patients whose cultures reverted to negative were considered candidates for vaginal delivery. During the study period, there were 16,381 deliveries at the two institutions. One hundred twenty pregnant women were cultured, with 80 being HSV culture negative and 40 culture positive. The outcome of these pregnancies as well as a review of the experience with neonatal HSV infection in Middle Tennessee is presented. It is concluded that by utilizing HSV cultures of genital lesions as a guide to determining the route of delivery, the incidence of cesarean sections and neonatal HSV infection can be kept to a minimum.     

Type-specific screening for asymptomatic herpes infection in pregnancy: a decision analysis

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the merits of serum screening for herpes simple virus (HSV) in pregnant women with no history of prior HSV infection. DESIGN: Clinical decision analysis. POPULATION: Hypothetical cohort of pregnant women in first trimester with no clinical history of HSV infection. METHODS: We used decision analysis techniques to compare three strategies for antepartum screening for HSV in women with no history of infection: (1) universal screening; (2) targeted screening in women estimated to be at high risk for infection; and (3) current care (no screening). For the screening strategies, we considered screening at 35 weeks of gestation, with prophylactic antiviral therapy for seropositive women. For all women, we assumed caesarean delivery in the setting of symptomatic infection at delivery. We performed a literature review of English-language publications to derive probability estimates for the rate of HSV seropositivity in asymptomatic pregnant women, and the risks of symptomatic HSV infection and asymptomatic shedding at the time of delivery. We determined the modification of rates of viral shedding, symptomatic lesions and caesarean section with the use of prophylactic suppression therapy for seropositive women based on available data. We chose neonatal herpes with severe sequelae, neonatal death, as well as caesarean delivery as clinically relevant outcomes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of cases of neonatal death, neonatal HSV with severe sequelae, neonatal HSV with moderate sequelae, patients screened, patients treated and caesarean section with each strategy. RESULTS: Universal maternal screening reduced the total number of deaths and severe sequelae secondary to neonatal HSV. Universal screening required treatment of 3849 women to prevent one case of neonatal death or disease with severe sequelae from HSV. Targeted screening of high risk women treatment of 2277 women to prevent one death or case of severe disease. Universal screening reduced the rate of neonatal HSV attributable to recurrent HSV by 79.3%. Caesarean delivery was reduced with both screening strategies. We used one-way sensitivity analyses to evaluate the robustness of our model. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal screening reduced the number of cases of neonatal HSV. Screening also reduced the rate of caesarean delivery. However, employing universal screening will likely result in a significant expenditure of medical resources because the number needed to treat to avert a single case of neonatal herpes is high.     

Changing trends in genital herpes simplex virus infection in Bergen, Norway

AIM OF STUDY: To document the proportion of each herpes simplex virus (HSV) type in genital HSV infection and changes over time during a 10 year period. DESIGN: Retrospective comparative study in sexually transmitted disease (STD) patients with genital HSV infection at the outpatient clinic for STD, Haukeland Hospital, Bergen, Norway. RESULTS: HSV-2 was the major cause during the 80's, whereas HSV-1 constitutes a greater part of the cases during the 90's, especially in female patients and in the younger age groups with primary or initial disease, where HSV-1 is the causative viral type in up to 70-90% of the cases. CONCLUSION: The documented change from HSV-2 towards HSV-1 in cases of genital HSV infection may have implications as to prognosis, future usefulness of vaccines, present and future usefulness of new type-specific serological tests.     

Acyclovir suppression to prevent clinical recurrences at delivery after first episode genital herpes in pregnancy: an open-label trial

OBJECTIVE: To continue evaluation of the use of acyclovir suppression in late pregnancy after first episode genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection, using an open-label study design. METHODS: Ninety-six women diagnosed with genital herpes for the first time in the index pregnancy were prescribed suppressive acyclovir 400 mg orally three times daily from 36 weeks until delivery in an open-label fashion. Herpes cultures were obtained when patients presented for delivery. Vaginal delivery was permitted if no clinical recurrence was present; otherwise a Cesarean delivery was performed. Neonatal HSV cultures were obtained and infants were followed clinically. Rates of clinical and asymptomatic genital herpes recurrences and Cesarean delivery for genital herpes were measured, and 95% confidence intervals were calculated. RESULTS: In 82 patients (85%) compliant with therapy, only 1% had clinical HSV recurrences at delivery. In an intent to treat analysis of the entire cohort, 4% had clinical recurrences (compared with 18-37% in historical controls). Asymptomatic shedding occurred in 1% of women without lesions at delivery. Two of the four clinical recurrences were HSV-culture positive. No significant maternal or fetal side-effects were observed. CONCLUSIONS: In clinical practice the majority of patients are compliant with acyclovir suppression at term. The therapy appears to be effective at reducing clinical recurrences after a first episode of genital herpes complicating a pregnancy.     

Antibody-mediated protection against genital herpes simplex virus type 2 disease in mice by Fc gamma receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms

The ability of antibody (Ab) to modulate HSV pathogenesis is well recognized but the mechanisms by which HSV-specific IgG antibodies protect against genital HSV-2 disease are not well understood. The requirement for Ab interactions with Fcγ receptors (FcγR) in protection was examined using a murine model of genital HSV-2 infection. IgG antibodies isolated from the serum of HSV-immune mice protected normal mice against HSV-2 disease when administered prior to genital HSV-2 inoculation. However, protection was significantly diminished in recipient mice lacking the gamma chain subunit utilized in FcγRI, FcγRIII, FcγRIV and FcepsilonRI receptors and in normal mice depleted of Gr-1⁺ immune cell populations known to express FcγR, suggesting protection was largely mediated by an FcγR-dependent mechanism. To test whether neutralizing Ab might provide superior protection, a highly neutralizing HSV glycoprotein D (gD)-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) was utilized. Similar to results with HSV-specific polyclonal IgG, administration of the gD-specific mAb did not prevent initial infection of the genital tract but resulted in lower virus loads in the vaginal epithelium and provided significant protection against disease and acute infection of the sensory ganglia; however, this protection was independent of host FcγR expression and was manifest in mice depleted of Gr-1⁺ immune cells. Together, these data demonstrate that substantial Ab-mediated protection against genital HSV-2 disease could be achieved by either FcγR-dependent or -independent mechanisms. These studies suggest that HSV vaccines might need to elicit multiple, diverse antibody effector mechanisms to achieve optimal protection.     

合并下生殖道人乳头瘤病毒感染妊娠结局和新生儿近期的影响

目的探讨妊娠合并下生殖道人乳头瘤病毒（HPV）感染妊娠结局和新生儿近期影响。方法选取HPV感染的孕妇116例为研究组,其中下生殖道疣55例,亚临床感染59例,潜伏感染2例。另选取HPV阴性的孕妇181例为对照组,对两组合并其他感染情况、妊娠结局、新生儿患病情况及分娩方式等进行分析。结果研究组合并其他感染如风疹病毒等患病率与对照组比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）;研究组剖宫产率及阴道分娩率同对照组比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）;两组中胎膜早破等不良妊娠结局发生率比较差异均无统计学意义（P〉0.05）,研究组未发现新生儿呼吸道乳头瘤患者;研究组经阴道分娩者羊水、脐静脉血感染率及胎盘病理检查阳性率等与剖宫产组比较差异均无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。结论妊娠合并下生殖道HPV感染发生新生儿呼吸道乳头状瘤率低,分娩方式对新生儿患病率影响不大,也不会增加胎膜早破等不良妊娠结局的发病率;下生殖道HPV感染孕妇易合并其他下生殖道感染,如风疹病毒等。     

单纯性疱疹病毒Ⅱ型母婴垂直传播初步研究

目的 :研究孕妇及胎儿单纯疱疹病毒 型 (HSV- )的感染及其母婴传播。方法 :采用聚合酶链反应法 (PCR)对 5 74例妊娠晚期孕妇的宫颈分泌物测 HSV- 型 DNA;用酶联免疫吸附法 (ELISA)对其中的 5 3 1例孕妇分娩时抽取母血及新生儿脐血测 HSV- 型Ig G、Ig M抗体。结果 :孕妇血 HSV- 型的 Ig G阳性检出率为 3 7.48%、Ig M阳性检出率为 1 0 .92 % ;胎儿脐血 HSV- 型的 Ig G阳性检出率为 2 9.3 8%、Ig M阳性检出率为2 .6 4 % ;孕妇宫颈分泌物 HSV- 型阳性检出率为 0。新生儿畸形 1例 ,为先天性耳聋。结论 :妊娠晚期孕妇存在 HSV- 的活动感染 ,及母婴宫内垂直传播     

Seroprevalence of influenza A H1N1 and seroconversion of mothers and infants induced by a single dose of monovalent vaccine

ObjectiveTo determine the prevalence of preexisting antibodies against the pandemic 2009 Influenza A (H1N1) virus in pregnant women and to evaluate the seroprotection of the mothers and infants by a single injection of monovalent vaccine during the pandemic.Materials and MethodsSeropositivity rate of H1N1 among the nonvaccinated were compared with the vaccinated women. A single dose of vaccine, either nonadjuvanted AdimFlu-S or MF59-adjuvanted vaccine, was injected to the voluntarily vaccinated group. Maternal and cord blood sera were collected to evaluate the antibody response of the H1N1 virus. Seropositivity was defined as a hemagglutination inhibition titer to H1N1 (A/Taiwan/126/09) ≥1:40.ResultsA total of 210 healthy, singleton, pregnant women were enrolled between January 2010 and May 2010. Seropositivity (≥1:40) of maternal hemagglutination inhibition was significantly higher in the vaccinated group (78%) than the nonvaccinated group (9.5%); 41.6% (20/48) of seropositive titers were >1:80. In nine vaccinated cases resulting in negative serum titers (<1:40), the prevalence of negative titer in the women received AdimFlu-S (14.8%, 4/31) was lower (p = 0.025) than those received MF59-adjuvanted vaccine (50%, 5/10).ConclusionsSubclinical infection against H1N1 was low in Taiwanese pregnant women in the pandemic 2009. Seropositivity >75% could be achieved in the paired maternal and cord serum samples by a single injection of monovalent H1N1 vaccine.     

Genital herpes simplex virus infection and perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus

OBJECTIVE: To assess the risk of perinatal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission in HIV-infected women clinically diagnosed with genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection during pregnancy. METHODS: This retrospective analysis included 402 HIV-infected pregnant women who enrolled from 1994-1999 in a multicenter prospective cohort study in New York City, who delivered a liveborn singleton infant with known HIV infection status, and who had information on diagnosis of genital HSV infection during pregnancy. Study participants were determined to have genital HSV infection during pregnancy by documentation of clinical diagnosis. RESULTS: Forty-six (11.4%) of the study participants delivered HIV-infected infants. Twenty-one (5.2%) had clinical diagnosis of genital HSV infection in pregnancy. Six (28.6%) of the 21 HIV-infected women with a clinical diagnosis of genital HSV infection delivered an HIV-infected infant. In univariate analyses, HIV-infected pregnant women with clinical diagnosis of genital HSV infection during pregnancy had a significantly increased risk of perinatal HIV transmission (odds ratio 3.4, 95% confidence interval 1.3-9.3; P = .02). When other factors associated with perinatal HIV transmission were included in a logistic regression model (lack of zidovudine therapy during pregnancy or delivery, prolonged rupture of membranes, and preterm delivery), clinical diagnosis of genital HSV infection during pregnancy remained a significant independent predictor of perinatal HIV transmission (adjusted odds ratio 4.8, 95% confidence interval 1.3-17.0; P = .02). CONCLUSION: Clinical diagnosis of genital HSV infection during pregnancy in HIV-infected women may be a risk factor for perinatal HIV transmission. If future studies confirm this association, therapy to suppress genital HSV reactivation during pregnancy may be a strategy to reduce perinatal HIV transmission.