Antimicrobial prophylaxis in otorhinolaryngology/head and neck surgery

• Prophylactic antimicrobial therapy is defined as the administration of an antimicrobial agent prior to contamination of previously sterile tissues or fluids, in an attempt to reduce the microbial burden of intraoperative contamination. Prophylactic antimicrobial therapy should cover the anticipated floral contamination, with therapeutic levels from incision to closure. • There is level I evidence to support the use of prophylaxis in clean‐contaminated head and neck procedures and tonsillectomy, while level II evidence fails to support the use of prophylaxis in clean head and neck procedures. • The aim of this study was to evaluate the use, timing and appropriateness of antimicrobial prophylaxis perioperatively, in otorhinolaryngological/head and neck procedures. • A total of 34/51 (66%) patients were administered antimicrobial agents prophylactically. Six of 19 patients (42%) who ought to have received prophylaxis did not, while six of 13 (46%) of those who did not require it received it. Administration was unsuitably timed in 14 of 34 (41%) operations. • This study demonstrates unnecessary administration of antimicrobial agents perioperatively, subclinical intraoperative antimicrobial levels for prophylaxis and inconsistent documentation regarding prophylaxis in otorhinolaryngological/head and neck procedures in a general ENT unit.     

Ampicillin-sulbactam vs clindamycin in head and neck oncologic surgery. The need for gram-negative coverage.

This study was undertaken to assess whether gram-negative antimicrobial coverage is required in patients undergoing head and neck oncologic surgery. Ampicillin sodium-sulbactam sodium and clindamycin phosphate were compared in a prospective, randomized, parallel, double-blind trial of 212 patients undergoing head and neck procedures involving clean-contaminated wounds. Both antibiotics were given up to 1 hour before surgery and continued at 6-hour intervals after surgery for an additional eight doses. Fourteen infections occurred in the ampicillin-sulbactam-treated group (13.3%) and 29 infections in the clindamycin-treated group (27.1%). From patients receiving clindamycin, 29 gram-negative organisms were isolated, compared with six from those patients receiving ampicillin-sulbactam. This finding supports the need for gram-negative coverage in patients undergoing clean-contaminated head and neck oncologic surgery.     

Antibiotic prophylaxis in head and neck cancer surgery

A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded trial of cefamandole in the prophylaxis of infection after major head and neck surgery was performed. Patients were given the drug on call to the operating room, and again four and eight hours after the initial dose. Twenty of 25 patients were evaluable. Wound infection developed in five of nine placebo recipients (55%), and three of 11 (33%) receiving cefamandole. Mean duration of hospitalization was 91.1 days in the placebo group, 34.3 in the cefamandole group (p less than 0.05). The study was stopped because of excessive morbidity in the placebo group. Cefamandole decreases the duration of hospitalization following major head and neck cancer surgery.     

Posterior nasal packing. Are intravenous antibiotics really necessary?

The use of antimicrobial prophylaxis in the presence of posterior nasal packing for the treatment of posterior epistaxis remains controversial. Twenty patients were prospectively randomized into this placebo-controlled, double-masked pilot study to receive either placebo or cefazolin sodium. Antibiotic-impregnated posterior gauze packing was employed in all patients. No infectious complications were noted in either group. The packings from the patients in the placebo group were foul smelling and heavily colonized with gram-negative bacteria while the packings from the antibiotic group were odor-free and lightly colonized with gram-positive organisms. This preliminary study suggests the usefulness of antimicrobial prophylaxis for preventing complications from posterior nasal packing, although a larger sample size will be needed to decrease the type II (beta) error.     

The efficacy of topical antibiotic prophylaxis for contaminated head and neck surgery

This study was undertaken to determine the feasibility of using perioperative topical antibiotics in contaminated head and neck surgery and to standardize the culture methodology (both qualitative and quantitative) which could serve as bacteriologic endpoints for evaluation. Following preliminary studies to establish oral cavity indicator organisms and the impact of a single antibiotic mouthwash dose on oral microflora, 10 consecutive patients undergoing contaminated head and neck surgery were recruited into a clinical trial where clindamycin mouthwash and intraoperative irrigation containing clindamycin were used instead of traditional parenteral antibiotics. The bacteriologic efficacy of topical clindamycin was assessed by comparing the presence of four indicator microorganisms (two aerobic and two anaerobic) cultured from two oral cavity culture sites before and after antibiotic prophylaxis The patients included in the study underwent total laryngectomy plus neck dissection(s) for laryngeal or hypopharyngeal carcinoma from 1991 to 1992 at a large university hospital specializing in head and neck cancer surgery. The main outcome measures used were the development of a postoperative wound infection and quantitative and qualitative bacteriology of the intraoperative neck wound and postoperative oral cavity Two aerobic and two anaerobic organisms proved useful as a practical indicator for bacteriologic efficacy. Preoperative mouthwash resulted in a 99% reduction of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in intraoperatively cultured neck sites. Irrigation during surgery with the clindamycin solution further reduced the bacterial neck counts by an additional 90%. There was a consistent overgrowth of Hemophilus species on postoperative oral cavity cultures. No patient developed a postoperative wound infection A topical prophylactic antibiotic alone was efficacious and safe for patients undergoing major contaminated head and neck surgery. Culture methods for assessment of bacteriologic efficacy were reproducible and cost-effective. This pilot study furnishes the ethical and scientific basis for large-scale prospective trials comparing topical versus parenteral antimicrobial agents.     

Prophylactic antibiotics in head and neck free flap surgery: A novel protocol put to the test

ObjectiveRecent evidence supports the use of ampicillin-sulbactam as a favored choice for antibiotic prophylaxis following head and neck free flap reconstructive surgery. However, there is a paucity of evidence guiding the optimal duration of antibiotic prophylaxis. The aim of this study is to compare the infection rates of short courses of ampicillin-sulbactam versus extended courses of various antibiotics in head and neck free flap reconstructive surgery.MethodsThis is a retrospective cohort study conducted from 2012 to 2017 at a tertiary academic center on 266 consecutive patients undergoing head and neck surgery with free flap reconstruction. The primary outcome measure was the rate of any infection within 30 days of surgery.ResultsThere were 149 patients who received antibiotic prophylaxis for an extended duration of at least seven days. 117 patients received a short course of antibiotics defined as 24 h for non-radiated patients and 72 h for radiated patients. Postoperative infections occurred in 45.9% of patients, of which 92.6% occurred at surgical sites. There was no significant difference in terms of postoperative infection rate between patients receiving an extended duration of antibiotics versus a short duration (p = 0.80). This held true for subgroups of surgical site infections (p = 0.38) and distant infections (p = 0.59 for pneumonia and p = 0.76 for UTI). Risk factors for infections were identified as hypothyroidism (p = 0.047) and clean contaminated wound classification (p = 0.0002).ConclusionShorter duration of ampicillin-sulbactam prophylaxis in free flap reconstruction of head and neck defects does not negatively affect postoperative infection rates.Level of evidenceLevel 2b.     

Effect of prophylactic antibiotics in radical head and neck surgery.

One hundred major head and neck operations performed on 77 patients were evaluated regarding the effectiveness of an aminoglycoside and cephalosporin antibiotic combination given prophylactically to prevent postoperative infection. The postoperative infection incidence was 6%, significantly lower than that reported in similar series where no antibiotics were used. The addition of the aminoglycoside did not appear to provide any additional protection compared with the use of cephalosporin alone.     

Three-dose vs extended-course clindamycin prophylaxis for free-flap reconstruction of the head and neck

BACKGROUND: Twenty-four hours of perioperative antibiotics provides effective prophylaxis for most head and neck cancer resections. Many reconstructive surgeons have been hesitant to apply this standard to free-flap reconstruction of the head and neck. This prospective clinical trial compared short-course and long-course clindamycin prophylaxis for wound infection in patients with head and neck cancer undergoing free-flap reconstruction. METHODS: Seventy-four patients were randomized to receive short-course (3 doses) or long-course (15 doses) clindamycin perioperatively. Wound infections, fistulas, and other postoperative complications were documented by faculty surgeons who were blinded as to treatment group. RESULTS: The differences in wound infections and other complications were statistically insignificant. No other independent predictors of wound complications emerged in this series of patients. CONCLUSIONS: Short-course clindamycin is as effective as long-course clindamycin in preventing wound infections after free-flap surgery for head and neck ablative defects.     

The role of topical antibiotic prophylaxis in patients undergoing contaminated head and neck surgery with flap reconstruction

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: Patients undergoing contaminated head and neck surgery with flap reconstruction have wound infection rates of 20% to 25% with parenteral antibiotic prophylaxis. Studies suggest that perioperative antimicrobial mouthwash reduces oropharyngeal flora and may prevent wound infections. We hypothesized that the addition of topical antibiotics to a parenteral prophylactic regimen would reduce the incidence of wound infection in these high-risk patients. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a randomized, prospective clinical trial. METHODS: Patients received either 1) parenteral piperacillin/tazobactam (3.375 g every 6 hours for 48 h) or 2) parenteral piperacillin/tazobactam plus topical piperacillin/tazobactam administered as a mouthwash immediately before surgery and once a day for 2 days postoperatively, with piperacillin/tazobactam added to the intraoperative irrigation solution. The wounds of all patients were evaluated daily using predefined objective criteria. RESULTS: Sixty-two patients met inclusion criteria and were enrolled in the study. The overall wound infection rate was 8.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.7%-17.8%). Two of 31 patients (6.4%) who received parenteral antibiotics alone developed a wound infection compared with 3 of 31 patients (9.7%) randomly assigned to receive topical plus parenteral antibiotics. This difference was not statistically significant (P = >.05). Infection rate was not associated with flap type (rotational vs. free tissue transfer), mandibular reconstruction, age, gender, tumor site, stage, surgical duration, or blood loss. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that piperacillin/tazobactam is a highly effective antibiotic for prevention of wound infection in patients undergoing flap reconstruction following contaminated head and neck surgery. However, the addition of topical piperacillin/tazobactam does not appear to enhance the prophylactic benefit of parenteral antibiotics alone.     

Antimicrobial prophylaxis for contaminated head and neck surgery

The use of antibiotic prophylaxis in head and neck surgery is controversial. Most surgeons agree that when surgery requires entry into the aerodigestive tract through the skin the wound is by definition contaminated and antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated as it is in other contaminated wounds. There is no general agreement as to which antibiotic or combination of antibiotics to use or what the schedule of dosage administration should be. In order to obtain a meaningful data to help in decision making, a double blind, randomized study was performed to investigate whether cefazolin alone or a combination of gentamicin and clindamycin was more effective in prophylaxis. All patients entered into the study underwent major oncologic head and neck surgery requiring entry into the upper aerodigestive tract through the skin. Patients were stratified at entry according to the stage of disease, surgical procedure, and the existence of a prior tracheotomy or prior radiation therapy. Subsequently, patients were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatment groups. Group I: Cefazolin 1 day, placebo day 2 to 5. Group II: Cefazolin days 1 to 5, Group III: Gentamicin and clindamycin 1 day, placebo days 2 to 5. Group IV: Gentamicin and clindamycin days 1 to 5. Drugs were given intravenously beginning 3 hours preoperatively and continued postoperatively every 8 hours, according to the assigned schedule. All wounds were observed daily following surgery and were graded on a predetermined scale by 3 unbiased observers. Significantly wound infections occurred in 15% of all patients. Group I, 33%; Group II, 20%; Group III, 7%; Group IV, 4%. In Group III and Group IV there was a statistically significant (P less than .05) reduction in the rate of postoperative wound infection. Multifactorial analysis demonstrated that patients whose surgery included repair with a regional pectoral flap had a statistically significant increased chance of developing postoperative wound infection (P less than .05). Patients undergoing laryngectomy, with or without neck dissection, were at less risk of postoperative infection tham patients undergoing oropharyngeal resection (P less than .05). The preoperative existence of tracheotomy or prior radiation therapy had no demonstrable effect on the incidence of wound infection postoperatively in this study.     

Wound prophylaxis with metronidazole in head and neck surgical oncology

Anaerobic organisms are thought to be an important source of wound infection in head and neck oncologic surgery. Antibiotic prophylaxis consisting of agents specific for anaerobes combined with broad-spectrum agents that provide coverage for other well-recognized pathogens should be an effective combination regimen for this group of patients. We conducted a prospective, randomized study comparing the efficacy of prophylaxis using combination of metronidazole and cefazolin—designated group A, to prophylaxis using cefazolin alone—group B, for patients undergoing oncologic procedures of the head and neck. The rate of wound infection in the cefazolin-metronidazole group (158 patients) was 9.5%, compared with 18.6% in the cefazolin group (172 patients) (p=0.03). Patients undergoing clean procedures had a 4.9% infection rate overall, compared with 17.9% for clean-contaminated procedures, and 33.3% for contaminated procedures. The average length of hospitalization was 20.7 days for patients who developed infections, compared with 8.9 days for patients without infection. Anaerobic organisms were cultured in 12 of 26 patients, ten of whom did not receive metronidazole. The lower rate of wound infection among patients who received metronidazole suggests that anaerobic organisms are an important source of wound infection in head and neck oncologic surgery. Chemoprophylaxis for these patients should, therefore, include specific anaerobic coverage in addition to the broad-spectrum agents that cover the more familiar aerobic organisms.     

Alcohol withdrawal prophylaxis in patients undergoing surgical treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

OBJECTIVES: Alcohol abuse is common in patients with squamous cell cancer of the head and neck. Postoperative alcohol withdrawal is associated with increased morbidity and prolonged hospitalization and is commonly treated with benzodiazepines. We reviewed our experience with benzodiazepine prophylaxis in high-risk patients undergoing surgical treatment of head and neck cancer. We sought to determine whether benzodiazepine prophylaxis was successful in preventing complications from alcohol withdrawal. STUDY DESIGN: Nonrandomized, retrospective patient analysis. METHODS: The medical records of all patients diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck from 1999 to 2004 were retrospectively reviewed. Patients who underwent surgical resection and who were considered high risk for postoperative alcohol withdrawal received benzodiazepine prophylaxis following an established institutional protocol and comprised the study group. RESULTS: Of 96 patients who met study criteria, 13 (13.5%) patients developed alcohol withdrawal symptoms, and 9 (9.4%) patients developed delirium tremens. Patients who manifested alcohol withdrawal remained in the hospital an average of 10.8 days longer (19.0 vs. 8.2) and had an overall complication rate of 50% (11 of 22) versus a 17.6% (13 of 74) complication rate in patients that did not develop withdrawal (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol withdrawal is associated with a significantly greater incidence of postoperative complications and duration of hospitalization. Benzodiazepine prophylaxis does not prevent postoperative alcohol withdrawal symptoms in all patients at risk. Alternate methods of prophylaxis should be explored.     

Perioperative short-term preventive antibiotics in head-neck surgery

A prospective perioperative trial with cefotiam and metronidazol was carried out in 114 patients undergoing head and neck surgery. The patients were stratified in one group receiving a single-dose prophylaxis and a second group receiving a 24-hour prophylaxis. The postoperative complication rates were analysed depending on various risk factors and the size and duration of surgery. For operations of similar size the long term prophylaxis had no advantage over the one-dose prophylaxis. It is concluded that a one-dose prophylaxis appears sufficient in major head and neck cases.     

The Effects of Epoetin Alfa on Transfusion Requirements in Head and Neck Cancer Patients: A Prospective,Randomized, Placebo‐Controlled Study

Objective To evaluate the efficacy of perioperative recombinant human erythropoietin (r‐HuEPO, epoetin alfa) in stimulating hematopoiesis and reducing allogeneic blood transfusion requirements in major head and neck cancer surgery. Study Design Double‐blinded, placebo‐controlled, randomized, prospective clinical trial. Methods Fifty‐eight patients undergoing surgical resection of head and neck tumors at the University of Iowa hospitals completed this study. Patients were required to have a pre‐study hemoglobin ≥10.0 g/dL and ≤13.5 g/dL. Group 1 (29 patients) received three doses of 600 IU/kg epoetin alfa before surgery. Group 2 (29 patients) received a placebo. All patients received oral iron supplementation (150 mg FeSO₄ twice per day). Results The epoetin alfa group demonstrated a significant increase in baseline to day‐of‐surgery mean hemoglobin (0.57 g/dL, P = .016), hematocrit (2.04%, P = .015), and reticulocyte count (95.3 × 10³ cells/mm³, P = <.001), whereas there was no significant change in these hematologic variables in the placebo group. The percent of patients who avoided transfusion in the epoetin alfa group was 34.5% versus 17.2% in the placebo group. Patients requiring allogeneic blood transfusions received an average of 3.16 units in the epoetin alfa group and 4.12 units in the placebo group. Conclusion In this single institution study, we demonstrated a significant improvement in hematopoietic parameters and a trend toward decreased transfusion requirements using perioperative epoetin alfa in a head and neck cancer patient population. Further studies may delineate additional benefits in treating qualified patients with epoetin alfa during therapy for head and neck malignancies.     

Utility of prophylactic antibiotics in pediatric adenoidectomy

OBJECTIVE: To determine the utility of prophylactic antibiotics in non-risk pediatric patients undergoing adenoidectomy. METHODS: We performed a prospective, controlled, randomized, and double-blind study on patients under 14 years of age, scheduled for adenoidectomy who accomplished the following criteria: absence of immunosuppressive and/or cardiovascular risk factors, no antimicrobial therapy for at least 15 days prior to operation, and no fever 1 week before surgery. Venous blood samples for culture were obtained at 30s and 20 min after the curettage of adenoidal tissue. Likewise, immediate and delayed complications were registered in all cases. The usefulness of prophylaxis was analyzed according to three major standpoints: bacteremia, immediate complications, and delayed complications. RESULTS: One-hundred one patients fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were included in the study. Fifty-one children received prophylaxis and the remainder did not. In the non-prophylactic group incidence of bacteremia at 30s was significantly higher than in the prophylactic group (32.7% versus 4.0%) (p<0.001). Neither bacteremia at 20 min, nor immediate or delayed complications showed statistical differences between both treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS: Preoperative antimicrobial prophylaxis in pediatric adenoidectomy did not offer advantages preventing complications in non-risk patients. Only bacteremia that occurs 30s after the curettage of adenoid tissue is reduced with the employment of prophylactic antibiotics.     

115例农村慢性鼻-鼻窦炎患者分泌物病原菌培养分析

目的：了解农村地区慢性鼻-鼻窦炎（CRS）的细菌分布、药物敏感性特征及抗生素使用对病原菌培养的影响。方法：选取115例居住在农村地区的CRS患者的鼻腔鼻窦分泌物,分别行需氧菌、厌氧菌培养及药物敏感试验。统计患者2周及近2个月内使用抗生素的情况。结果：115例标本中共检出37例17种致病菌,需氧菌阳性率为32.17%。表皮葡萄球菌为农村地区CRS中最常见的需氧菌。17例上颌窦标本厌氧菌培养无结果。115例患者中近2个月内使用抗生素者有90例（78.26%）,近2周内使用抗生素者有73例（63.48%）。采用χ2检验发现在伴鼻息肉的CRS组中,细菌培养率高（P〈0.05）,提示细菌性因素与鼻息肉生成有关联。CRS患者细菌培养阳性者对氧氟沙星、头孢噻肟、头孢他啶、头孢吡肟等敏感,而对青霉素G、氨苄西林、红霉素等有较高的耐药现象。结论：农村地区CRS细菌分布无特异性差异,CRS患者抗生素滥用及厌氧菌培养技术原因是导致培养阳性率低最主要的因素。合理使用抗菌药物应建立在细菌培养和药物敏感试验的基础上。     

Infection following uncontaminated head and neck surgery

The efficacy of perioperative antibiotic administration during major head and neck surgery in which the wound is contaminated by saliva has been clearly established. This study was undertaken to ascertain the incidence of postoperative wound infection encountered in patients undergoing major head and neck surgery in which no contamination occurred. The records of 438 patients who had undergone parotidectomy, thyroidectomy, or submandibular gland excision were reviewed retrospectively. Eighty percent of the patients had received no perioperative antibiotic therapy. Infections developed in three (0.7%) patients during one month following surgery. One of these patients had received perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis. These data clearly demonstrate the non-efficacy of antibiotics administered in patients undergoing parotidectomy, thyroidectomy, or submandibular gland excision when no infection exists prior to surgery.     

Prophylactic antibiotic use in clean,uncontaminated neck dissection

A recent report in the literature cites a 10% wound infection rate for clean, uncontaminated neck dissections in patients who did not receive antibiotic prophylaxis as compared with a 3.3% infection rate in patients who received prophylactic antibiotics. Although a trend favoring antibiotic prophylaxis was identified, the duration of therapy was not considered. The present analysis addresses this issue. The authors retrospectively reviewed the records of 120 patients who underwent clean, uncontaminated neck dissections over a 3-year period (July 1989 through May 1992) for variables related to wound infections. Radiation therapy had previously been used in 70% of these patients. Group 1 (31 patients) received 24 hours of perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis, and group 2 (89 patients) received antibiotic prophylaxis until the suction drains were removed (usually 4 or 5 days after surgery). No perioperative wound infections occurred in either group. The authors concluded that perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis for 24 hours is sufficient to prevent wound infections in clean, uncontaminated neck dissections.     

Excretion of beta-lactam antibiotics in human parotid saliva

We investigated the penetration of beta-lactam antibiotics into parotid saliva after intravenous administration. Neither mezlocillin nor oxacillin could be detected in parotid saliva, but cefotaxime (CTX) and cefotiam (CTM) penetrated parotid saliva very well. While salivary CTM concentrations reached peak values (9.52 +/- 3.4 mg/l) within 30 min of the end of infusion, the highest CTX concentrations in parotid saliva (5.84 +/- 2.6 mg/l) were observed after 90 min. After 300 min the salivary CTM levels were below the limit of detection, while the mean CTX concentration even 360 min after the end of infusion was 2.27 +/- 1.23 mg/l. Both CTX and CTM achieve salivary concentrations that are inhibitory against the prevailing pathogens causing suppurative parotitis, and thus promise to be effective for the treatment of this disease. Furthermore, the excretion of comparatively high concentrations of both drugs into the mouth achieves a selective decontamination of the mucosal surfaces of the upper aerodigestive tract so that they are suitable for perioperative prophylaxis in head and neck surgery.     

Perioperative prophylaxis with cefmenoxime and metronidazole in patients with head and neck tumors

Twenty-one patients with carcinoma of the larynx, hypopharynx and the tongue underwent surgery under perioperative prophylaxis with cefmenoxime and metronidazole. Healing was uneventful and the clinical and the chemical parameters remained normally. The level of the antibiotics was effective against most of the bacteria cultured from tracheal aspirate and the posterior wall of the oral cavity. Effective perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis is necessary in head and neck surgery: the use of simple antibiotics in short courses should be assessed.