Young Swedish vegans have different sources of nutrients than young omnivores

The aim of this study was to identify sources of nutrients in diets of young Swedish vegans and omnivores. Three months of dietary intakes were investigated by diet history interviews. Volunteers were recruited through advertising and visits to schools in the city of Ume?, Sweden. Thirty vegans, 15 female and 15 male, aged 17.5+/-1.0 years, were compared with 30 sex-, age-, and height-matched omnivores. Vegans had different sources of nutrients than young omnivores and relied to a great extent on dietary supplements as a source of vitamin B-12, vitamin D, calcium, and selenium. Dietary intake of vegetables, fruits, and berries exceeded 500 g/day for 21 of the 30 vegans, whereas the same held true for only 1 of the 30 omnivores. Instead of animal products, young vegans rely on dietary supplements, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and berries as sources of nutrients.     

Validity of reported energy expenditure and energy and protein intakes in Swedish adolescent vegans and omnivores

BACKGROUND: It is difficult to obtain accurate reports of dietary intake; therefore, reported dietary intakes must be validated. Researchers need low-cost methods of estimating energy expenditure to validate reports of energy intake in groups with different lifestyles and eating habits. OBJECTIVE: We sought to validate the reported energy expenditure and energy and protein intakes of Swedish adolescent vegans and omnivores. DESIGN: We compared 16 vegans (7 females and 9 males; mean age: 17.4 +/- 0.8 y) with 16 omnivores matched for sex, age, and height. Energy expenditure as reported in a physical activity interview and energy and protein intakes as reported by diet history were validated by using the doubly labeled water method and by measuring urinary nitrogen excretion. RESULTS: The validity of reported energy expenditure and energy and protein intakes was not significantly different between vegans and omnivores. The physical activity interview had a bias toward underestimating energy expenditure by 1.4 +/- 2.6 MJ/d (95% CI: 2.4, 0.5 MJ/d). The diet-history interview had a bias toward underestimating energy intake by 1.9 +/- 2.7 MJ/d (95% CI: 2.9, 1.0 MJ/d) but showed good agreement with the validation method for nitrogen (protein) intake (underestimate of 0.40 +/- 1.90 g N/d; 95% CI: 1.10, 0.29 g N/d). CONCLUSIONS: The physical activity and diet-history interviews underestimated energy expenditure and energy intake, respectively. Energy intake and expenditure were underestimated to the same extent, and the degree of underestimation was not significantly different between vegans and omnivores. Valid protein intakes were obtained with the diet-history method for both vegans and omnivores.     

Vitamin B-12 status,particularly holotranscobalamin II and methylmalonic acid concentrations,and hyperhomocysteinemia in vegetarians

BACKGROUND: Vegetarians have a lower intake of vitamin B-12 than do omnivores. Early and reliable diagnosis of vitamin B-12 deficiency is very important. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to investigate vitamin B-12 status in vegetarians and nonvegetarians. DESIGN: The study cohort included 66 lactovegetarians or lactoovovegetarians (LV-LOV group), 29 vegans, and 79 omnivores. Total vitamin B-12, methylmalonic acid, holotranscobalamin II, and total homocysteine concentrations were assayed in serum. RESULTS: Of the 3 groups, the vegans had the lowest vitamin B-12 status. In subjects who did not consume vitamins, low holotranscobalamin II (< 35 pmol/L) was found in 11% of the omnivores, 77% of the LV-LOV group, and 92% of the vegans. Elevated methylmalonic acid (> 271 nmol/L) was found in 5% of the omnivores, 68% of the LV-LOV group, and 83% of the vegans. Hyperhomocysteinemia (> 12 micromol/L) was present in 16% of the omnivores, 38% of the LV-LOV group, and 67% of the vegans. The correlation between holotranscobalamin II and vitamin B-12 was weak in the low serum vitamin B-12 range (r = 0.403) and strong in the high serum vitamin B-12 range (r = 0.769). Holotranscobalamin II concentration was the main determinant of total homocysteine concentration in the vegetarians (beta = -0.237, P < 0.001). Vitamin B-12 deficiency led to hyperhomocysteinemia that was not probable in the upper folate range (> 42.0 nmol/L). CONCLUSIONS: Vegan subjects and, to a lesser degree, subjects in the LV-LOV group had metabolic features indicating vitamin B-12 deficiency that led to a substantial increase in total homocysteine concentrations. Vitamin B-12 status should be monitored in vegetarians. Health aspects of vegetarianism should be considered in the light of possible damaging effects arising from vitamin B-12 deficiency and hyperhomocysteinemia.     

Vegans,Vegetarians and Pescatarians Are at Risk of Iodine Deficiency in Norway

Low iodine intakes have been documented in different population groups in Norway. We aimed to assess iodine status, dietary intake, supplement and macroalgae use, and iodine knowledge in vegans, vegetarians and pescatarians. In this study, 115 vegans, 55 vegetarians and 35 pescatarians from the Oslo region of Norway, aged 18–60 years, participated. A spot urine sample was collected along with a dietary assessment of iodine intake, supplement and macroalgae use. The median urinary iodine concentration (MUIC) in vegans was 43 µg/L (moderate iodine deficiency), in vegetarians 67 µg/L and in pescatarians 96 µg/L (mild iodine deficiency). In multiple linear regression analysis, use of iodine supplements was one of the strongest predictors of UIC. About half of the participants had median 24-h iodine intakes below estimated average requirement (EAR) of 100 µg/day. Fifty percent had low knowledge score, while 27% had very low knowledge score. Vegans, vegetarians and possibly pescatarians in Norway, are unable to reach the recommended iodine intake merely from food and are dependent on iodine supplements. There is an urgent need for dietary guidance targeting vegans, vegetarians and pescatarians to avoid inadequate iodine intake in non-supplement users, as well as avoiding excess iodine intake in macroalgae users.     

Nutrient intake and iron status of Australian male vegetarians

OBJECTIVE: The study was designed to investigate the iron intake and status of Australian, male vegetarians aged between 20 and 50 y. DESIGN: Cross-sectional comparison of male vegetarians and age/sex matched omnivores. SETTING: Free-living community subjects. SUBJECTS: 39 ovolactovegetarians, 10 vegans and 25 omnivores were recruited by local advertisement. OUTCOME MEASURES: A 12-d semiquantitative dietary record to assess iron and zinc intake. Iron status was assessed by measurement of serum ferritin and haemoglobin concentrations. RESULTS: Mean (s.d.) daily iron intakes of both the ovolactovegetarians (20.4 (7.7) mg/d) and vegans (22.9 (6.2) mg/d), were significantly higher than the omnivores' intake of 15.8 (4.5) mg/d. Ovo-lactovegetarians and vegans had significantly (P < 0.001 and P < 0.05, respectively) lower serum ferritin concentrations than omnivores: mean (s.d.): 64 (46.9), 65 (49.9) and 121 (72.5) ng/ml, respectively. Significantly more ovolactovegetarians and vegans than omnivores had serum ferritin concentrations below 25 ng/ml and below 12 ng/ml (P < 0.05). A higher proportion of omnivores had concentrations above 200 ng/ml (P < 0.05). The differences in serum ferritin concentrations between the vegetarians and omnivores remained significant even after exclusion of iron supplement users. CONCLUSION: Australian male vegetarians had iron intakes higher than those of omnivores and above recommended levels, but their iron status was significantly lower.     

Nutrient Intake and Status of German Children and Adolescents Consuming Vegetarian,Vegan or Omnivore Diets: Results of the VeChi Youth Study

There is a lack of data on associations between modern vegetarian and vegan diets and health among children and adolescents. The aim of the Vechi Youth Study was to cross-sectionally examine anthropometry, dietary intakes and nutritional status in a sample of 149 vegetarian, 115 vegan and 137 omnivore children and adolescents (6–18 years old, mean age: 12.7 ± 3.9 years). Group differences of dietary intake (calculated from three-day dietary records), nutrient biomarker and blood lipid concentrations were assessed using an analysis of covariance, adjusted for sex, age and other covariates. The total energy intake did not differ significantly between groups, but intake of carbohydrates was higher among vegetarians and vegans than among omnivores (p = 0.0002, respectively). The median protein intake exceeded 0.9 g/kg body weight/day in all diet groups and was lowest among vegetarians (p < 0.02). There was no significant difference of haemoglobin, vitamin B2, 25-OH vitamin D3, HDL-C and triglycerides blood concentrations between diet groups. Vegan participants had higher folate concentrations than vegetarian participants (p = 0.0053). Ferritin concentration was significantly higher in omnivores than in vegetarians (p = 0.0134) and vegans (p = 0.0404). Vegetarians had lower concentrations of holotranscobalamin (p = 0.0042) and higher concentrations of methylmalonic acid (p = 0.0253) than omnivores. Vegans had the lowest non-HDL-C and LDL-C concentrations in comparison to vegetarians (p = 0.0053 and p = 0.0041) and omnivores (p = 0.0010 and p = 0.0010). A high prevalence (>30%) of 25-OH vitamin D3 and vitamin B2 concentrations below reference values were found irrespective of the diet group. In conclusion, the Vechi Youth Study did not indicate specific nutritional risks among vegetarian and vegan children and adolescents compared to omnivores.     

Zinc intake and status in Australian vegetarians

Vegetarians have a lower incidence of many chronic diseases than omnivores. However, vegetarian diets could potentially result in lower intakes of some minerals, particularly Zn. In a cross-sectional study, dietary Zn intake was measured using 12 d weighed records in ninety-nine vegetarians (ten vegans) aged 18-50 years and forty-nine age- and sex-matched omnivores. In men, the mean daily Zn intake and Zn density values were similar in omnivores, ovolactovegetarians and vegans, but in women they were significantly lower in vegetarians (mean intake 6.8 mg v. 8.4 mg in omnivores) and few achieved the recommended intake. Significantly more vegetarian than omnivorous women had a daily Zn intake < 6 mg (44% v. 13%). Mean serum Zn concentrations were similar in female omnivores and vegetarians, despite the differences in intake. However, omnivorous men had a lower mean serum Zn concentration (0.85 microgram/ml v. 0.95 microgram/ml) and more subjects had levels below the reference range of 0.72-1.44 micrograms/ml than ovolactovegetarians (P < 0.01). Overall more women than men had low Zn concentrations; and these women generally had intakes below 6 mg/d. There was a significant correlation between serum Zn concentration and dietary Zn density in vegetarians, especially females (P < 0.001), but not in omnivores. Ovolactovegetarians did not have a significantly greater risk of low Zn status than omnivores.     

Dietary intake and nutritional status of vegetarian and omnivorous preschool children and their parents in Taiwan

The aim of this study was to assess and compare dietary intake and nutritional status of vegetarian and omnivorous preschool children and their parents. Fifty-six omnivores (28 children and 28 parents) and 42 vegetarians (21 preschool children with 18 lacto-ovo-vegetarians and 3 ovo-vegetarians; 21 parents with 16 lacto-ovo-vegetarians, 2 ovo-vegetarians, 1 lacto-vegetarian, and 2 vegans) were recruited. Anthropometric measurements were taken; body mass index and weight-for-height index (WHI) were calculated. Nutrient intake was recorded using 3-day dietary records. Fasting venous blood samples were obtained to estimate hematologic and vitamin status parameters. Height, weight, body mass index, WHI, and triceps skinfold thickness value differences between omnivores and vegetarians in both parent and child groups were not found. Both omnivorous parents and their children had significantly higher fat and lower fiber intakes than vegetarian parents and children. Omnivorous children had significantly higher protein and lower vitamin C intakes than vegetarian children, whereas omnivorous parents had significantly lower vitamin A and iron intakes than vegetarian parents. Vegetarians and omnivores in both parent and child groups had mean calcium consumption less than 75% of the Taiwan dietary intakes. All mean hematologic and biochemical nutrient status indices were within the reference range in any groups. However, both vegetarian parents and children had significantly lower mean total cholesterol and serum ferritin concentrations than those of omnivorous parents and children. Our vegetarian and omnivorous preschool children had normal growth and adequate nutritional status. However, both parents and children had inadequate calcium intakes, which may potentially affect bone health, especially for preschool children in the growing stage.     

Vegan Diet,Subnormal Vitamin B-12 Status and Cardiovascular Health

Vegetarian diets have been associated with atherosclerosis protection, with healthier atherosclerosis risk profiles, as well as lower prevalence of, and mortality from, ischemic heart disease and stroke. However, there are few data concerning the possible cardiovascular effects of a vegan diet (with no meat, dairy or egg products). Vitamin B-12 deficiency is highly prevalent in vegetarians; this can be partially alleviated by taking dairy/egg products in lact-ovo-vegetarians. However, metabolic vitamin B-12 deficiency is highly prevalent in vegetarians in Australia, Germany, Italy and Austria, and in vegans (80%) in Hong Kong and India, where vegans rarely take vitamin B-12 fortified food or vitamin B-12 supplements. Similar deficiencies exist in northern Chinese rural communities consuming inadequate meat, egg or dairy products due to poverty or dietary habits. Vascular studies have demonstrated impaired arterial endothelial function and increased carotid intima-media thickness as atherosclerosis surrogates in such metabolic vitamin B-12 deficient populations, but not in lactovegetarians in China. Vitamin B-12 supplementation has a favourable impact on these vascular surrogates in Hong Kong vegans and in underprivileged communities in northern rural China. Regular monitoring of vitamin B-12 status is thus potentially beneficial for early detection and treatment of metabolic vitamin B-12 deficiency in vegans, and possibly for prevention of atherosclerosis-related diseases.     

Dietary intakes and lifestyle factors of a vegan population in Germany: results from the German Vegan Study

OBJECTIVE: Evaluation of dietary intakes and lifestyle factors of German vegans. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTINGS: Germany. SUBJECTS: Subjects were recruited through journal advertisements. Of 868 volunteers, only 154 participated in all study segments (pre- and main questionnaire, two 9-day food frequency questionnaires, blood sampling) and fulfilled the following study criteria: vegan dietary intake at least 1 year prior to study start, minimum age of 18 y, no pregnancy or childbirth during the last 12 months. INTERVENTIONS: No interventions. RESULTS: All the 154 subjects had a comparatively low BMI (median 21.2 kg/m(2)), with an extremely low mean consumption of alcohol (0.77+/-3.14 g/day) and tobacco (96.8% were nonsmokers). Mean energy intake (total collective: 8.23+/-2.77 MJ) was higher in strict vegans than in moderate ones. Mean carbohydrate, fat, and protein intakes in proportion to energy (total collective: 57.1:29.7:11.6%) agreed with current recommendations. Recommended intakes for vitamins and minerals were attained through diet, except for calcium (median intake: 81.1% of recommendation), iodine (median: 40.6%), and cobalamin (median: 8.8%). For the male subgroup, the intake of a small amount of food of animal origin improved vitamin and mineral nutrient densities (except for zinc), whereas this was not the case for the female subgroup (except for calcium). CONCLUSION: In order to reach favourable vitamin and mineral intakes, vegans should consider taking supplements containing riboflavin, cobalamin, calcium, and iodine. Intake of total energy and protein should also be improved.     

Haematological studies on pre-menopausal Indian and Caucasian vegetarians compared with Caucasian omnivores

Full blood counts, serum ferritin, vitamin B12 and folate, erythrocyte folate concentrations and nutrient intakes were estimated in twenty-three Indian vegetarian, twenty-two Caucasian omnivores and eighteen Caucasian vegetarian women aged 25-40 years. Energy and copper intakes were lower in the Indian women than in the Caucasians. Intakes of dietary fibre, vitamin C and folate were greater and the proportion of energy derived from fat was lower in the vegetarians than in the omnivores. Vitamin B12 and protein intakes were lower in both vegetarian groups than in the omnivores. Fe intake was similar in all the groups but haem Fe provided one-quarter of the Fe intake of the omnivores. Haemoglobin concentrations were generally inside the normal range in all groups, but were lower in the Indians as were mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH). Higher MCV, MCH and lower erythrocyte (RBC) counts were observed in Caucasian vegetarians compared with the Caucasian omnivores. In both groups of vegetarians, concentrations of serum vitamin B12 and ferritin were markedly lower than in the omnivores. RBC folate concentrations were lower in the Indians than in either of the Caucasian groups when subjects taking supplements were excluded. It is concluded that vegetarians need to ensure they have adequate intakes of Fe and vitamin B12.     

Foods, fortificants, and supplements: Where do Americans get their nutrients?

Limited data are available on the source of usual nutrient intakes in the United States. This analysis aimed to assess contributions of micronutrients to usual intakes derived from all sources (naturally occurring, fortified and enriched, and dietary supplements) and to compare usual intakes to the Dietary Reference Intake for U.S. residents aged ≥2 y according to NHANES 2003-2006 (n = 16,110). We used the National Cancer Institute method to assess usual intakes of 19 micronutrients by source. Only a small percentage of the population had total usual intakes (from dietary intakes and supplements) below the estimated average requirement (EAR) for the following: vitamin B-6 (8%), folate (8%), zinc (8%), thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B-12, phosphorus, iron, copper, and selenium (<6% for all). However, more of the population had total usual intakes below the EAR for vitamins A, C, D, and E (34, 25, 70, and 60%, respectively), calcium (38%), and magnesium (45%). Only 3 and 35% had total usual intakes of potassium and vitamin K, respectively, greater than the adequate intake. Enrichment and/or fortification largely contributed to intakes of vitamins A, C, and D, thiamin, iron, and folate. Dietary supplements further reduced the percentage of the population consuming less than the EAR for all nutrients. The percentage of the population with total intakes greater than the tolerable upper intake level (UL) was very low for most nutrients, whereas 10.3 and 8.4% of the population had intakes greater than the UL for niacin and zinc, respectively. Without enrichment and/or fortification and supplementation, many Americans did not achieve the recommended micronutrient intake levels set forth in the Dietary Reference Intake.     

Vegan Diet and Bone Health—Results from the Cross-Sectional RBVD Study

Scientific evidence suggests that a vegan diet might be associated with impaired bone health. Therefore, a cross-sectional study (n = 36 vegans, n = 36 omnivores) was used to investigate the associations of veganism with calcaneal quantitative ultrasound (QUS) measurements, along with the investigation of differences in the concentrations of nutrition- and bone-related biomarkers between vegans and omnivores. This study revealed lower levels in the QUS parameters in vegans compared to omnivores, e.g., broadband ultrasound attenuation (vegans: 111.8 ± 10.7 dB/MHz, omnivores: 118.0 ± 10.8 dB/MHz, p = 0.02). Vegans had lower levels of vitamin A, B2, lysine, zinc, selenoprotein P, n-3 fatty acids, urinary iodine, and calcium levels, while the concentrations of vitamin K1, folate, and glutamine were higher in vegans compared to omnivores. Applying a reduced rank regression, 12 out of the 28 biomarkers were identified to contribute most to bone health, i.e., lysine, urinary iodine, thyroid-stimulating hormone, selenoprotein P, vitamin A, leucine, α-klotho, n-3 fatty acids, urinary calcium/magnesium, vitamin B6, and FGF23. All QUS parameters increased across the tertiles of the pattern score. The study provides evidence of lower bone health in vegans compared to omnivores, additionally revealing a combination of nutrition-related biomarkers, which may contribute to bone health. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings.     

Dietary intake and iron status of Australian vegetarian women.

BACKGROUND: Despite the possible overall health benefits of a vegetarian diet, there is concern that some vegetarians and infrequent meat eaters, particularly females, may have inadequate iron status because of low or no heme-iron intakes. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to investigate the nutritional intake and iron status of vegetarian women. DESIGN: The nutritional intakes of 50 free-living vegetarian women aged 18-45 y and 24 age-matched omnivorous control women were assessed by using 12-d weighed dietary records. Iron status was assessed by measuring hemoglobin and serum ferritin concentrations. RESULTS: There was no significant difference between mean (+/-SD) daily iron intakes of vegetarians and omnivores (10.7 +/- 4.4 and 9.9 +/- 2.9 mg, respectively), although heme-iron intakes were low in the vegetarians. Vegetarians had significantly lower intakes of protein (P < 0.01), saturated fat (P < 0.01), and cholesterol (P < 0.001), and significantly higher intakes of dietary fiber (P < 0.001) and vitamin C (P < 0.05). Mean serum ferritin concentrations were significantly lower (P = 0.025) in vegetarians (25.0 +/- 16.2 microg/L) than in omnivores (45.5 +/- 42.5 microg/L). However, similar numbers of vegetarians (18%) and omnivores (13%) had serum ferritin concentrations <12 microg/L, which is a value often used as an indicator of low iron stores. Hemoglobin concentrations were not significantly different. CONCLUSION: It is important that both vegetarian and omnivorous women maintain an adequate iron status and follow dietary practices that enhance iron absorption.     

A daily intake of approximately 6 microg vitamin B-12 appears to saturate all the vitamin B-12-related variables in Danish postmenopausal women

BACKGROUND: Recommended daily intakes of vitamin B-12 vary between 2 and 6 microg. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to examine the associations between vitamin B-12 intake and markers of vitamin B-12 deficiency. DESIGN: We studied 98 Danish postmenopausal women aged 41-75 y. Serum cobalamin, transcobalamin (TC) saturated with vitamin B-12 (holo-TC), TC saturation (holo-TC/total TC), methylmalonic acid (MMA), and total homocysteine (tHcy) were measured to assess vitamin B-12 status. Dietary intakes of vitamin B-12 were determined from 7-d weighed food records. Gastric pH measurement and the alkali-challenge test were performed with the use of Heidelberg radiotelemetric capsules. RESULTS: The total intake of vitamin B-12 ranged from 1.2 to 23.9 microg/d. All vitamin B-12-related variables, except gastric pH, correlated significantly with total vitamin B-12 intake. Those taking supplements (54%) had higher circulating concentrations of cobalamin and TC saturation and lower concentrations of MMA and tHcy than did those not taking supplements. All subjects were divided into quintiles according to their total vitamin B-12 intake. For all the variables analyzed, the curves appeared to level off at a daily vitamin B-12 intake of approximately 6 microg; the median (and 25th-75th percentiles) for cobalamin was 380 (270-480) pmol/L, for holo-TC was 119 (92-162) pmol/L, for MMA was 0.12 (0.14-0.17) micromol/L, and for tHcy was 9.75 (8.3-11.40) micromol/L (n = 58). CONCLUSION: A daily vitamin B-12 intake of 6 microg appeared to be sufficient to correct all the vitamin B-12-related variables measured in the postmenopausal Danish women in this study.     

Nutrient Intake and Status in Adults Consuming Plant-Based Diets Compared to Meat-Eaters: A Systematic Review

Health authorities increasingly recommend a more plant-based diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, pulses, whole grains and nuts, low in red meat and moderate in dairy, eggs, poultry and fish which will be beneficial for both health and the environment. A systematic review of observational and intervention studies published between 2000 and January 2020 was conducted to assess nutrient intake and status in adult populations consuming plant-based diets (mainly vegetarian and vegan) with that of meat-eaters. Mean intake of nutrients were calculated and benchmarked to dietary reference values. For micronutrient status, mean concentrations of biomarkers were calculated and compared across diet groups. A total of 141 studies were included, mostly from Europe, South/East Asia, and North America. Protein intake was lower in people following plant-based diets compared to meat-eaters, but well within recommended intake levels. While fiber, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), folate, vitamin C, E and magnesium intake was higher, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake was lower in vegetarians and vegans as compared to meat-eaters. Intake and status of vitamin B12, vitamin D, iron, zinc, iodine, calcium and bone turnover markers were generally lower in plant-based dietary patterns compared to meat-eaters. Vegans had the lowest vitamin B12, calcium and iodine intake, and also lower iodine status and lower bone mineral density. Meat-eaters were at risk of inadequate intakes of fiber, PUFA, α-linolenic acid (ALA), folate, vitamin D, E, calcium and magnesium. There were nutrient inadequacies across all dietary patterns, including vegan, vegetarian and meat-based diets. As plant-based diets are generally better for health and the environment, public health strategies should facilitate the transition to a balanced diet with more diverse nutrient-dense plant foods through consumer education, food fortification and possibly supplementation.     

What is the cobalamin status among vegetarians and vegans in Australia?

Abstract

Water-soluble vitamin B₁₂ (cobalamin) plays a vital role in normal blood function and neurological functioning. Clinical and subclinical B₁₂ deficiency has been notably reported in vegans, vegetarians, the elderly and metformin-treated diabetics. Currently, the prevalence of cobalamin deficiency among vegans and vegetarians in Australia is lacking; data on dietary intake including supplements and nutritional status are also limited. The increasing multiculturalism of Australia has seen an influx of imported foods, of which some may contain considerable vitamin B₁₂. However, values for such foods are not included in the food composition databases. This review highlights the need to update the food composition database with culturally diverse foods containing vitamin B₁₂. Moreover, the need for assessing dietary intakes and status using the most current best evidence and best practice on nutritional indicators (biochemical and functional biomarkers) to estimate the risk of deficiency and/or depletion is discussed.     

Plasma vitamin B-12 concentrations relate to intake source in the Framingham Offspring study

BACKGROUND: Low vitamin B-12 status is prevalent among the elderly, but few studies have examined the association between vitamin B-12 status and intake. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that vitamin B-12 concentrations vary according to intake source. DESIGN: Plasma concentrations and dietary intakes were assessed cross-sectionally for 2999 subjects in the Framingham Offspring Study. The prevalence of vitamin B-12 concentrations <148, 185, and 258 pmol/L was examined by age group (26-49, 50-64, and 65-83 y), supplement use, and the following food intake sources: fortified breakfast cereal, dairy products, and meat. RESULTS: Thirty-nine percent of subjects had plasma vitamin B-12 concentrations <258 pmol/L, 17% had concentrations <185 pmol/L, and 9% had concentrations <148 pmol/L, with little difference between age groups. Supplement users were significantly less likely than non-supplement-users to have concentrations <185 pmol/L (8% compared with 20%, respectively). Among non-supplement-users, there were significant differences between those who consumed fortified cereal >4 times/wk (12%) and those who consumed no fortified cereal (23%) and between those in the highest and those in the lowest tertile of dairy intake (13% compared with 24%, respectively), but no significant differences by meat tertile. Regression of plasma vitamin B-12 on log of intake, by source, yielded significant slopes for each contributor adjusted for the others. For the total group, b = 40.6 for vitamin B-12 from vitamin supplements. Among non-supplement-users, b = 56.4 for dairy products, 35.2 for cereal, and 16.7 for meat. Only the meat slope differed significantly from the others. CONCLUSIONS: In contrast with previous reports, plasma vitamin B-12 concentrations were associated with vitamin B-12 intake. Use of supplements, fortified cereal, and milk appears to protect against lower concentrations. Further research is needed to investigate possible differences in bioavailability.     

Dietary and Plasma Phospholipid Profiles in Vegans and Omnivores—Results from the RBVD Study

Over the last few years, the vegan diet has become increasingly popular in Germany. It has been proposed that this diet is generally lower in fat, but less is known about the impact on fatty acid (FA) profiles. Therefore, the cross-sectional “Risks and Benefits of a Vegan Diet” (RBVD) study (n = 72) was used to investigate dietary FA intake as well as plasma phospholipid FA in vegans (n = 36) compared to omnivores (n = 36). Vegans had a significantly lower dietary intake of total fat (median 86 g/day, IQR 64–111) in comparison to omnivores (median 104 g/day, IQR 88–143, p = 0.004). Further, vegans had a lower intake of saturated fatty acids (SFA) (p < 0.0001) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (p = 0.001) compared to omnivores. Vegans had a higher intake in total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA compared to omnivores, but without statistical significance after Bonferroni correction. According to plasma phospholipid profiles, relatively lower proportions of SFA (p < 0.0001), total trans fatty acids (TFA) (p = 0.0004) and omega-3-FA (p < 0.0001), but higher proportions of omega-6-FA (p < 0.0001) were observed in vegans. With the exception of omega-3 PUFA, a vegan diet is associated with a more favorable dietary fat intake and more favorable plasma FA profiles and therefore may reduce cardiovascular risk.     

Plasma pyridoxal 5'-phosphate concentration and dietary vitamin B-6 intake in free-living, low-income elderly people

Free-living, elderly persons (aged greater than or equal to 60 y, n = 198) were recruited to determine the effects of age, sex, health status, dietary vitamin B-6 intakes, and B-6 supplement use on plasma pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP). Vitamin B-6 intakes were determined from 3-d diet records; supplementation was based on self-reported brand and frequency data. Fasting blood samples were analyzed for PLP. Subjects were primarily low-income Caucasians. There was no linear relationship between dietary vitamin B-6 intake, age, sex or health status, and PLP while accounting for supplemental vitamin B-6 use. PLP, however, was negatively correlated with age (p less than 0.001) in individuals with PLP values between 32 and 90 nmol/L. Vitamin B-6 status was low (PLP less than 32 nmol/L) in 32% of this elderly population (n = 198) and could be attributed to low dietary vitamin B-6 intakes and/or the presence of health problems reported to alter vitamin B-6 status. This research suggests that low vitamin B-6 status is prevalent in low-income, elderly persons, especially those with multiple health problems.