CT evaluation of the shoulder in children with Erb's palsy

The majority of children with traumatic injuries of the brachial plexus recover with only minor sequelae. Some patients develop residual deformity, however. This deformity may consist only of internal rotation contractures, but in some patients subluxation of the humeral head may be present. CT is useful in the evaluation of: the presence or absence of subluxation, deformity of the glenoid and the proper placement of the humeral head in plaster or orthotic devices.     

MRI of rotator cuff muscle atrophy in relation to glenohumeral joint incongruence in brachial plexus birth injury

Purpose: To evaluate rotator cuff muscles and the glenohumeral (GH) joint in brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI) using MRI and to determine whether any correlation exists between muscular abnormality and the development of glenoid dysplasia and GH joint incongruity. Materials and methods: Thirty-nine consecutive BPBI patients with internal rotation contracture or absent active external rotation of the shoulder joint were examined clinically and imaged with MRI. In the physical examination, passive external rotation was measured to evaluate internal rotation contracture. Both shoulders were imaged and the glenoscapular angle, percentage of humeral head anterior to the middle of the glenoid fossa (PHHA) and the greatest thickness of the subscapular, infraspinous and supraspinous muscles were measured. The muscle ratio between the affected side and the normal side was calculated to exclude age variation in the assessment of muscle atrophy. Results: All muscles of the rotator cuff were atrophic, with the subscapular and infraspinous muscles being most severely affected. A correlation was found between the percentage of humeral head anterior to the middle of the glenoid fossa (PHHA) and the extent of subscapular muscle atrophy (r_s=0.45, P=0.01), as well as between its ratio (r_s=0.5, P P=0.01). Severity of rotator cuff muscle atrophy correlated with increased glenoid retroversion and the degree of internal rotation contracture. Conclusions: Glenoid retroversion and subluxation of the humeral head are common in patients with BPBI. All rotator cuff muscles are atrophic, especially the subscapular muscle. Muscle atrophy due to neurogenic damage apparently results in an imbalance of the shoulder muscles and progressive retroversion and subluxation of the GH joint, which in turn lead to internal rotation contracture and deformation of the joint.     

Diagnostic performance of MRI and MR myelography in infants with a brachial plexus birth injury

Background Detailed evaluation of a brachial plexus birth injury is important for treatment planning. Objective To determine the diagnostic performance of MRI and MR myelography in infants with a brachial plexus birth injury. Materials and methods Included in the study were 31 children with perinatal brachial plexus injury who underwent surgical intervention. All patients had cervical and brachial plexus MRI. The standard of reference was the combination of intraoperative (1) surgical evaluation and (2) electrophysiological studies (motor evoked potentials, MEP, and somatosensory evoked potentials, SSEP), and (3) the evaluation of histopathological neuronal loss. MRI findings of cord lesion, pseudomeningocele, and post-traumatic neuroma were correlated with the standard of reference. Diagnostic performance characteristics including sensitivity and specificity were determined. Results From June 2001 to March 2004, 31 children (mean age 7.3 months, standard deviation 1.6 months, range 4.8–12.1 months; 19 male, 12 female) with a brachial plexus birth injury who underwent surgical intervention were enrolled. Sensitivity and specificity of an MRI finding of post-traumatic neuroma were 97% (30/31) and 100% (31/31), respectively, using the contralateral normal brachial plexus as the control. However, MRI could not determine the exact anatomic area (i.e. trunk or division) of the post-traumatic brachial plexus neuroma injury. Sensitivity and specificity for an MRI finding of pseudomeningocele in determining exiting nerve injury were 50% and 100%, respectively, using MEP, and 44% and 80%, respectively, using SSEP as the standard of reference. MRI in infants could not image well the exiting nerve roots to determine consistently the presence or absence of definite avulsion. Conclusion In children younger than 18 months with brachial plexus injury, the MRI finding of pseudomeningocele has a low sensitivity and a high specificity for nerve root avulsion. MRI and MR myelography cannot image well the exiting nerve roots to determine consistently the presence or absence of avulsion of nerve roots. The MRI finding of post-traumatic neuroma has a high sensitivity and specificity in determining the side of the brachial plexus injury but cannot reveal the exact anatomic area (i.e. trunk or division) involved. The information obtained is, however, useful to the surgeon during intraoperative evaluation of spinal nerve integrity for reconstruction.     

肌电图联合磁共振诊断新生儿臂丛神经损伤的应用

目的 探讨神经肌电图及MRI在诊断新生儿臂丛神经损伤中的特点及应用.方法对30例临床诊断臂丛神经损伤的新生儿进行肌电图检查,测定臂丛神经的五大分支神经传导及其所主要支配肌肉的肌电活动,同时完善臂丛神经MRI检查,对比分析两种检查结果.结果 肌电图提示上(中)干型损害25例(83.3%),全干型4例(13.3%),下干型1例(3.3%),节前受累6例(20%),完全性损伤7例(23.3%),不完全损伤23例(76.7%).MRI提示节前损伤7例(23.3%),其中上(中)臂丛型损害5例(16.7%),全臂丛型1例(3.3%),下臂丛型损伤1例(3.3%).结论 神经肌电图与MRI在臂丛神经损伤定位上均有良好的提示作用,但对于轻度不完全损伤,肌电图检测结果更佳,二者联合能更好地进行诊断.     

Arachnoid cyst masquerading as obstetric brachial plexus palsy

Obstetric brachial plexus palsy is not uncommon. However, lesions masquerading as obstetric brachial plexus palsy are rare. A child with a cervicothoracic arachnoid cyst masquerading as obstetric brachial plexus palsy is presented, and the relevant literature is reviewed. A girl born by vaginal delivery at full term without any antecedent risk factors for obstetric brachial plexus palsy was noted to have decreased movements of the right upper extremity. After 7 months, there was no improvement. An MRI scan was obtained, which revealed a cervicothoracic spinal extradural arachnoid cyst. During surgery, the cyst was found to communicate with the dura at the axilla of the C-7 nerve root. The cyst was excised in toto. Six months later, there was improvement in the infant's neurological status. This case illustrates that spinal arachnoid cysts should be entertained in the differential diagnosis when a child presents with obstetric brachial plexus palsy without known antecedent risk factors for obstetric palsy.     

Geburtstraumatische Armplexusparesen

Birth-related brachial plexus palsy is often considered unavoidable and untreatable. Hence the ideal time for potentially effective brachial plexus surgery is often missed. However, the majority of birth-related brachial plexus lesions are light traction injuries which recover without surgical reconstruction under physiotherapy. This is not true for severe injuries with loss of continuity due to disruption or avulsion of the brachial plexus. These lesions can leave severe functional losses of the upper extremity for the patient’s lifetime. Patients with non-recovering brachial plexus injuries should be referred to an interdisciplinary center for birth-related brachial plexus injuries within the first 3 months of life. A German working group on birth-related brachial plexus palsy based in Munich (Dr. von Haunersches Kinderspital) aims to offer competent advice and treatment for parents and patients. Patients can attend a monthly interdisciplinary clinic, preferably in the third month of life, where they are clinically and electrophysiologically examined and further therapeutic steps are initiated. The decision on whether direct brachial plexus surgery is recommended is taken by the 9^th month of life at the latest. According to the child’s development, other techniques, such as Botulinum toxin, tenolysis, tendon lengthening, as well as other tendon transfer methods, can be helpful in restoring everyday function in the affected limb. Since 2002, the working group on birth-related brachial plexus palsy has treated more than 150 patients on an interdisciplinary basis, including pediatrics, developmental neurology, neurology, hand surgery and plastic and reconstructive surgery. Their work as been very positively received both locally and nationally. The current article aims to review diagnostic and therapeutic options and strategies and to focus on the possibilities of both primary and secondary reconstruction of the brachial plexus.     

The odontoid synchondrotic slip: an injury unique to young children

We report seven children (three female, four male) diagnosed with traumatic synchondrotic slip of the odontoid. The clinical records, plain films, and CT scans were evaluated retrospectively. The patients ranged in age between 3 and 5 years. Their injuries resulted from a motor vehicle accident in four cases and from a fall from a height in three. The injury was isolated in five; it was associated with a closed head injury in one and with facial and brachial plexus trauma in another. Radiographs showed anterior angulation with or without displacement in all seven cases. Axial CT with sagittal reformation and 3D reconstructions were performed in six cases. This confirmed the synchondrotic slip and, in addition, identified a rotary component to the injury in three cases, with compromise of the canal in two. Other additional injuries were also noted. All cases were treated conservatively and the injuries healed. Only one child had a neurological deficit attributable to her head injury rather than to her cervical injury (MR of the cervical cord was normal). The presence of the synchondrosis between the dens and the body of C-2 makes this injury unique to children under 7 years of age; by the age of 7 the synchondrosis has fused.

     

Central nervous system imaging and congenital melanocytic naevi

AIM—To establish the prevalence of central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a population of children with congenital melanocytic naevi (CMN) over the head and/or spine, and to compare this with clinical findings.
METHODS—Forty three patients identified from outpatient clinics underwent MRI of the brain and/or spine. These were reported by a paediatric radiologist and findings compared with the clinical picture.
RESULTS—Nine patients had abnormal clinical neurology, seven had abnormal findings on MRI, and six had both abnormal clinical and radiological findings. Only three of the abnormal MRIs showed features of intracranial melanosis. Three others showed structural brain abnormalities: one choroid plexus papilloma, one cerebellar astrocytoma, and one posterior fossa arachnoid cyst; the first two of these have not previously been described in association with CMN. The last abnormal MRI showed equivocal changes requiring reimaging.
CONCLUSIONS—The prevalence of radiological CNS abnormality in this group of children was 7/43. Six of these developed abnormal clinical neurological signs within the first 18 months of life, but two did not do so until after the MRI. Two of the CNS lesions were operable; for this reason we support the routine use of early MRI in this group.

     

Magnetic resonance neurography in children with birth-related brachial plexus injury

Background Magnetic resonance neurography (MRN) enables visualization of peripheral nerves. Clinical examination and electrodiagnostic studies have been used in the evaluation of birth-related brachial plexus injury. These are limited in their demonstration of anatomic detail and severity of injury. Objective We investigated the utility of MRN in evaluating birth-related brachial plexus injury in pediatric patients, and assessed the degree of correlation between MRN findings and physical examination and electromyographic (EMG) findings. Materials and methods The MRN findings in 11 infants (age 2 months to 20 months) with birth-related brachial plexus injury were evaluated. A neuroradiologist blinded to the EMG and clinical examination findings reviewed the images. Clinical history, examination, EMG and operative findings were obtained. Results All infants had abnormal imaging findings on the affected side: seven pseudomeningoceles, six neuromas, seven abnormal nerve T2 signal, four nerve root enlargement, and two denervation changes. There was greater degree of correlation between MRN and physical examination findings (kappa 0.6715, coefficient of correlation 0.7110, P < 0.001) than between EMG and physical examination findings (kappa 0.5748, coefficient of correlation 0.5883, P = 0.0012). Conclusion MRN in brachial plexus trauma enables localization of injured nerves and characterization of associated pathology. MRN findings demonstrated a statistically significant correlation with physical examination and EMG findings, and might be a useful adjunct in treatment planning.     

The ultrasound diagnosis of posterior shoulder dislocation associated with Erb's palsy

A case is presented of an infant with Erb's palsy whose posterior dislocation of the humeral head was identified using high-resolution ultrasound following non-diagnostic plain radiographs. Posterior dislocation is associated with Erb's palsy but the diagnosis can be delayed. We suggest the early use of ultrasound in patients with Erb's palsy, as this technique is a safe, quick and reliable method of excluding posterior dislocation. Received: 20 March 1997 Accepted: 9 January 1998     

Central nervous system imaging and congenital melanocytic naevi.

AIM: To establish the prevalence of central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a population of children with congenital melanocytic naevi (CMN) over the head and/or spine, and to compare this with clinical findings. METHODS: Forty three patients identified from outpatient clinics underwent MRI of the brain and/or spine. These were reported by a paediatric radiologist and findings compared with the clinical picture. RESULTS: Nine patients had abnormal clinical neurology, seven had abnormal findings on MRI, and six had both abnormal clinical and radiological findings. Only three of the abnormal MRIs showed features of intracranial melanosis. Three others showed structural brain abnormalities: one choroid plexus papilloma, one cerebellar astrocytoma, and one posterior fossa arachnoid cyst; the first two of these have not previously been described in association with CMN. The last abnormal MRI showed equivocal changes requiring reimaging. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of radiological CNS abnormality in this group of children was 7/43. Six of these developed abnormal clinical neurological signs within the first 18 months of life, but two did not do so until after the MRI. Two of the CNS lesions were operable; for this reason we support the routine use of early MRI in this group.     

Involvement of the brachial plexus and its branches by cystic hygromas

Lymphatic malformations that involve the nervous system are uncommon. The authors review their experience with involvement of the brachial plexus and its branches by cystic hygromas. A retrospective review of the authors' experience with pathology of the pediatric brachial plexus revealed 4 cases involving patients with compression of this structure and its branches due to cystic hygroma. Although such cases are apparently rare, the neurosurgeon should consider malformations of the lymphatic system in the differential diagnosis of masses involving the brachial plexus and its branches.     

A systematic review of brachial plexus surgery for birth-related brachial plexus injury

OBJECTIVE: Brachial plexus injury complicates 0.6-2.6 per 1,000 live births. Surgery is sometimes advocated for patients who fail to improve with conservative management. We reviewed the available literature on birth-related brachial plexus palsy in order to provide recommendations for surgical management, using evidence-based criteria. METHODS: Studies were identified by searching Medline (1966-2002) and the Cochrane Library using the terms brachial plexus, neonate or infant, surgery and natural history. The reference lists of relevant articles were also reviewed. The search was restricted to articles published in English. Each article was classified according to its methodology. Management recommendations were suggested based on the results of the studies identified and the degree of certainty of the available literature. RESULTS: Twenty-three papers were selected for detailed analysis. There are no randomized controlled trials that have investigated the role of brachial plexus surgery in the management of birth-related brachial plexus palsy. Two prospective studies of relevance were found, one describing the natural history of birth-related brachial plexus injury and one evaluating surgery for these patients. The remainder consisted of retrospective case series. Outcomes from surgical series are generally favorable (level III and V evidence). Direct comparison with the natural history could not be inferred from the series reviewed given the lack of controls. CONCLUSION: There is no conclusive evidence showing a benefit of surgery over conservative management approaches in the treatment of patients with birth-related brachial plexus injuries. Surgery remains a valid practice option given the level III and V evidence suggesting a possible benefit of surgery.     

切开复位交叉克氏针内固定术治疗难复性肱骨远端全骺分离26例

目的对26例难复性肱骨远端全骺分离患者行切开复位内固定术后的临床疗效进行观察。方法以四川省骨科医院儿童骨科2015年1月至2017年7月收治的26例肱骨远端全骺分离患者为研究对象,26例均在全身麻醉联合臂丛麻醉下行轻柔闭合复位,均未达到满意复位,后立即行肘外侧切开复位交叉克氏针内固定术,术后3周取除石膏外固定行伤肢主动功能锻炼。术后采用Flynn肘关节功能评定标准评定疗效。结果本组26例均获随访,随访时间8个月至3年6个月,平均2年1个月,疗效判定等级:优19例,良5例,一般2例,差0例;优良率达92%。结论儿童难复性肱骨远端全骺分离行切开复位交叉克氏针内固定术可最大程度获得解剖复位,术后肘内翻发生率低,伤肢肘关节功能活动恢复良好。     

Demyelinating neuropathy in a 6‐year‐old girl with autism spectrum disorder

Herein we report the case of a 6‐year‐old girl with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and weakness in the distal portion of the right upper limb. Although difficult to perform, nerve conduction studies indicated demyelinating neuropathy. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed swelling a nd high‐intensity signals in the right brachial plexus and cervical spinal roots. The symptoms recovered after a single course of i.v. immunoglobulin. Electrophysiological indices and MRI findings also improved after treatment. This case demonstrates the utility of neuroimaging in addition to electrophysiological assessments for the diagnosis of demyelinating neuropathy, particularly in young patients with ASD.     

Cause and Effect of Obstetric (Neonatal) Brachial Plexus Palsy

ABSTRACT. We have studied the causes and outcome of obstetric brachial plexus palsy in all children born in Malmö during the 10-year period 1973–1982. Forty-eight of 25736 live-bom children (0.19%) were neonatally diagnosed as having a brachial plexus paresis. Twenty-five percent of these, i.e., one child in 2000 liveborn, had a persistent palsy. The obstetric history was characterized by high birthweight, vertex presentation with shoulder dystocia and multiparity; and in two cases the mother had two children with brachial palsy. The children who recovered totally did so during the first few months. The prognosis for the more common upper brachial plexus, or Erb's, was more favorable than that for entire brachial plexus palsy. All the children with persistent palsy were afflicted with considerable reduction in arm function, resulting in varying degrees of handicap, such as not being able to use the palsied arm at all or not being able to perform certain tasks—writing properly, playing a musical instrument, doing the hair, wearing clothing with shoulder straps, etc. We wish to point out that, in several cases, obstetric brachial plexus palsy results in a lifelong handicap and that prevention and therapy are essential both in obstetric and in pediatric management.     

Cause and effect of obstetric (neonatal) brachial plexus palsy

We have studied the causes and outcome of obstetric brachial plexus palsy in all children born in Malm? during the 10-year period 1973-1982. Forty-eight of 25,736 live-born children (0.19%) were neonatally diagnosed as having a brachial plexus paresis. Twenty-five percent of these, i.e., one child in 2,000 liveborn, had a persistent palsy. The obstetric history was characterized by high birthweight, vertex presentation with shoulder dystocia and multiparity; and in two cases the mother had two children with brachial palsy. The children who recovered totally did so during the first few months. The prognosis for the more common upper brachial plexus, or Erb's, was more favorable than that for entire brachial plexus palsy. All the children with persistent palsy were afflicted with considerable reduction in arm function, resulting in varying degrees of handicap, such as not being able to use the palsied arm at all or not being able to perform certain tasks--writing properly, playing a musical instrument, doing the hair, wearing clothing with shoulder straps, etc. We wish to point out that, in several cases, obstetric brachial plexus palsy results in a lifelong handicap and that prevention and therapy are essential both in obstetric and in pediatric management.     

Long-term outcomes of triangle tilt surgery for obstetric brachial plexus injury

Aim  

The purpose of this study was to evaluate long-term shoulder functional outcomes from a triangle tilt procedure on obstetric patients, who initially presented with medial rotation contracture and scapular deformity secondary to obstetric brachial plexus injury.     

Perinatal brachial plexus palsy

BACKGROUND

Perinatal brachial plexus palsy (PBPP) is a flaccid paralysis of the arm at birth that affects different nerves of the brachial plexus supplied by C5 to T1 in 0.42 to 5.1 infants per 1000 live births.

OBJECTIVES

To identify antenatal factors associated with PBPP and possible preventive measures, and to review the natural history as compared with the outcome after primary or secondary surgical interventions.

METHODS

A literature search on randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews and meta-analyses on the prevention and treatment of PBPP was performed. EMBASE, Medline, CINAHL and the Cochrane Library were searched until June 2005. Key words for searches included ‘brachial plexus’, ‘brachial plexus neuropathy’, ‘brachial plexus injury’, ‘birth injury’ and ‘paralysis, obstetric’.

RESULTS

There were no prospective studies on the cause or prevention of PBPP. Whereas birth trauma is said to be the most common cause, there is some evidence that PBPP may occur before delivery. Shoulder dystocia and PBPP are largely unpredictable, although associations of PBPP with shoulder dystocia, infants who are large for gestational age, maternal diabetes and instrumental delivery have been reported. The various forms of PBPP, clinical findings and diagnostic measures are described. Recent evidence suggests that the natural history of PBPP is not all favourable, and residual deficits are estimated at 20% to 30%, in contrast with the previous optimistic view of full recovery in greater than 90% of affected children. There were no randomized controlled trials on nonoperative management. There was no conclusive evidence that primary surgical exploration of the brachial plexus supercedes conservative management for improved outcome. However, results from nonrandomized studies indicated that children with severe injuries do better with surgical repair. Secondary surgical reconstructions were inferior to primary intervention, but could still improve arm function in children with serious impairments.

CONCLUSIONS

It is not possible to predict which infants are at risk for PBPP, and therefore amenable to preventive measures. Twenty-five per cent of affected infants will experience permanent impairment and injury. If recovery is incomplete by the end of the first month, referral to a multidisciplinary team is necessary. Further research into prediction, prevention and best mode of treatment needs to be done.     

短潜伏期体感诱发电位在慢性炎性脱髓鞘性多发性神经根神经病中的诊断作用

目的探讨短潜伏期体感诱发电位(SSEP)对慢性炎性脱髓鞘性多发性神经根神经病(CIDP)的诊断作用。方法 48例确诊或可能CIDP患儿及40例健康对照儿童进行肌电图神经传导和/或SSEP检查(健康对照仅行SSEP检查)。肌电图神经传导检查采用4道肌电图仪进行,包括至少4条运动神经和2条感觉神经;SSEP主要观察正中神经的N6(肘部电位),N13(颈髓电位),N20(皮质电位);胫神经的N8(腘窝电位),N22(腰髓电位),P39(皮质电位)。结果肌电图神经传导检测提示,48例患儿中35例运动、感觉神经均脱髓鞘,符合CIDP确诊标准;8例为感觉神经脱髓鞘,5例为轴突变性为主。40例患儿SSEP异常(未符合CIDP确诊标准的8例感觉受累患儿和5例继发轴突变性患儿的SSEP均异常),其中7例可见臂丛神经干和/或后根水平传导异常,33例同时有腰骶丛和/或后根损害。与健康对照相比,CIDP患儿N13、N22波幅潜伏期明显延长(P0.05)。结论 SSEP可用于CIDP辅助诊断,特别是对于感觉神经受累为主或继发轴突变性的CIDP患儿。