Signal transduction pathways

The development of agents designed to interfere with the various signal transduction pathways known to be aberrant in cancers remains an interesting area of anticancer drug development. The ability to identify a large series of kinase inhibitors with differing selectivities has been one of the major recent advances in medicinal chemistry. A series of first generation inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases, specific tyrosine kinases, (as well as inhibitors of processing of the Ras protein, which were not covered in this session) have now reached early clinical trials. In contrast to trials with "standard" cytotoxic agents, cytostatic effects necessitating the use of chronic, ideally oral, dosing schedules is the norm for these new agents.     

Signal transduction pathways in mitogenesis

Quiescent cells arrested in the Go phase of the cell cycle can be stimulated to divide by polypeptide growth factors, pharmacological agents and neuropeptides which exhibit potent synergistic effects. Bombesin-like peptides are providing valuable model mitogens to elucidate the signalling pathways leading to mitogenesis. These peptides stimulate rapid increases in ionic fluxes, inositol polyphosphate formation, activation of protein kinases and expression of proto-oncogenes. A comparison of these early molecular events with those evoked by other growth factors indicate the existence of multiple signal-transduction pathways. We propose that stimulation of cell proliferation by single or multiple factors results from the activation of separate signal-transduction pathways that cooperate to elicit the complete set of molecular events leading to mitogenesis.     

免疫调节相关的信号转导通路研究现状

随着现代分子生物学的迅速发展及其在免疫学研究中的广泛应用,人们已发现多种信号转导通路与免疫调节相关。目前研究较多的主要有TLRs信号通路、JAK-STAT信号通路、T细胞活化通路、B细胞活化通路等。这些信号转导通路任何环节发生异常均会导致疾病发生。     

Signal transduction pathways triggered by selective formylpeptide analogues in human neutrophils

Human neutrophils are highly specialised for their primary function, i.e. phagocytosis and destruction of microorganisms. Leukocyte recruitment to sites of inflammation and infection is dependent upon the presence of a gradient of locally produced chemotactic factors. The bacterial peptide N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP) was one of the first of these to be identified and is a highly potent leukocyte chemoattractant. It interacts with its receptor on the neutrophil membrane, activating these cells through a G-protein-coupled pathway. Two functional fMLP receptors have thus far been cloned and characterized, namely FPR (formyl peptide receptor) and FPRL1 (FPR like-1), with high and low affinities for fMLP, respectively. FMLP is known to activate phospholipase C (PLC), PLD, PLA2 and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), and it also activates tyrosine phosphorylation. The second messengers resulting from the fMLP receptor interaction act on various intracellular kinases, including protein kinase C (PKC) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). The activation of these signal transduction pathways is known to be responsible for various biochemical responses which contribute to physiological defence against bacterial infection and cell disruption. This review will consider the ability of selective analogues (ligands able to discriminate between different biological responses) to activate a single spectrum of signal transduction pathways capable of producing a unique set of cellular responses, hypothesising that a distinctive imprint of signal protein activation may exist. Through more complete understanding of intracellular signaling, new drugs could be developed for the selective inflammatory blockade.     

三烃基锡化合物诱导肿瘤细胞内信号转导的凋亡机制研究进展

有机锡化合物是近年来研究较活跃的一类金属有机化合物,研究发现三烃基锡化合物有强大的抗肿瘤作用,对多种肿瘤细胞具有明显的抗癌活性,可诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡。其中研究最深入的是三丁基锡、三苯基锡和三甲基锡化合物,它们可通过Fas受体、线粒体、Ca2+、MAPKs,p53、NF-κB以及Caspase/p38/ROS等细胞内信号转导途径诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡,该文综述了这方面的研究进展。     

Signal transduction events elicited by natural products: Role of MAPK and caspase pathways in homeostatic response and induction of apoptosis

Many natural products elicit diverse pharmacological effects. Using two classes of potential chemopreventive compounds, the phenolic compounds and the isothiocyanates, we review the potential utility of two signaling events, the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and the ICE/Ced-3 proteases (caspases) stimulated by these agents in mammalian cell lines. Studies with phenolic antioxidants (BHA, tBHQ), and natural products (flavonoids; EGCG, ECG, and isothiocyanates; PEITC, sulforaphane), provided important insights into the signaling pathways induced by these compounds. At low concentrations, these chemicals may activate the MAPK (ERK2, JNK1, p38) leading to gene expression of survival genes (c-Fos, c-Jun) and defensive genes (Phase II detoxifying enzymes; GST, QR) resulting in survival and protective mechanisms (homeostasis response). Increasing the concentrations of these compounds will additionally activate the caspase pathway, leading to apoptosis (potential cytotoxicity). Further increment to suprapharmacological concentrations will lead to nonspecific necrotic cell death. The wider and narrow concentration ranges between the activation of MAPK/gene induction and caspases/cell death exhibited by phenolic compounds and isothiocyanates, respectively, in mammalian cells, may reflect their respective therapeutic windowsin vivo. Consequently, the studies of signaling pathways elicited by natural products will advance our understanding of their efficacy and safety, of which many may become important therapeutic drugs of the future.     

Signal transduction pathways provide opportunities to enhance HDL and apoAI-dependent reverse cholesterol transport

Binding of High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) and its major apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) to cell surface receptors is believed to initiate a plethora of signaling cascades that promote atheroprotective cell behavior, including the removal of excess cholesterol from lipid-loaded macrophages. More specifically, HDL and apoA-I binding to scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI) and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter A1 has been shown to activate protein kinase A and C (PKA, PKC), Rac/Rho GTPases, Janus Kinase 2 (JAK2), calmodulin as well as mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). Some of these signaling events upregulate mobilization of cholesterol from cellular pools, while others promote efflux pathways through increased expression, stability, and cell surface localization of SR-BI and ABCA1. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge of HDL- and apoA-I -induced signal transduction pathways that are linked to cholesterol efflux and discusses the underlying mechanisms that could couple ligand binding to SR-BI and ABCA1 with signaling and cholesterol export. Additional focus is given on the potential of pharmacological intervention to modulate the activity of signaling cascades for the inhibition or regression of cholesterol accumulation in atherosclerotic lesions.     

Signal transduction in cardiac hypertrophy--dissecting compensatory versus pathological pathways utilizing a transgenic approach.

Targeted and regulated genetic manipulation, physiological intervention to introduce biomechanical stress and injury, sophisticated measurement of cardiac function in transgenic heart at whole organ and cellular level, and the molecular/biochemical/genomic analysis of signaling pathways in cardiomyocytes represent the most significant advances in recent years in this field. Such progress has helped make inroads into understanding the molecular mechanism of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Delineating intracellular signaling pathways involved in the different aspects of cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling will have significant implications in drug development for heart failure.     

Insulin-like growth factor I inhibits cardiomyocyte apoptosis and the underlying signal transduction pathways

The effects of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) on cardiomyocyte apoptosis induced by hypoxia in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocyte were investigated. Primary neonatal rat cardiomyocytes were cultured in 95% N2-5% CO2 to imitate the in vivo hypoxic condition. Electron microscopic observation revealed a series of typical morphological changes characteristic of apoptosis in cardiomyocytes under the hypoxic condition. DNA gel electrophoresis showed DNA laddering in an ischemic duration-dependent manner. The hypoxia-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis was also evidenced by flow cytometry and TUNEL assay. DNA gel electrophoresis showed that IGF-I in a dose range of 10(-9)-10(-7) mol/l could significantly prevent the hypoxia-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis. The protective effects of IGF-I against hypoxia-induced apoptosis could also be verified by flow cytometry and TUNEL assay. A tyrosine kinase inhibitor (genistein), a MAPK inhibitor (PD-098059) and a P13 kinase inhibitor (wortmannin) could also suppress the antiapoptotic effects of IGF-I. These results suggest that IGF-I can directly alleviate the hypoxia-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis and that the three kinase routes mentioned above may be involved in its signaling pathways.     

Induction of germline apoptosis by cobalt and relevant signal transduction pathways in Caenorhabditis elegans

Many investigations showed that cobalt exposure could induce apoptosis both in cells and tissues. However, appropriate in vivo animal models to assess the underlying mechanisms of cobalt-induced apoptosis are currently unavailable. The model organism, Caenorhabditis elegans, has been shown to be a good model for evaluating many biological processes. This study detected significant cobalt induced germline cell apoptosis after 12-h exposure; thus demonstrating that C. elegans could be a mammalian in vivo substitute model to study mechanisms of apoptosis. Then knockout gene C. elegans strains were utilized to investigate the relationship between cobalt-induced apoptosis and relevant signal pathways, which were involved in DNA damage and repair, apoptosis regulation, and damage signal transduction. The results presented here demonstrated that cobalt-induced apoptosis was independent of the DNA damage response gene, such as hus-1, p53/cep-1, and egl-1. The loss-of-function of the genes that related to JNK and p38 MAPK signaling cascades suppressed cobalt-induced germline apoptosis, while ERK signaling cascades have no effect on the cobalt-induced germline apoptosis.     

溶血磷脂酰胆碱刺激脑微血管平滑肌细胞增殖的细胞内信号转导途径

通过测定 [3 H]胸腺嘧啶核苷 ( [3 H]Td R)参入和结晶紫染色法测定平滑肌细胞增殖 ,研究了溶血磷脂酰胆碱 ( LPC)刺激牛脑微血管平滑肌细胞( BCMSMC)增殖的细胞内信号转导途径 .结果显示 ,LPC能浓度依赖性 ( 1 nmol· L-1- 1 0μmol·L-1)诱导 BCMSMC摄取 [3 H]Td R,在 LPC的浓度为 1 0μmol· L-1时作用达最大 ,cpm由 366± 1 42升至 1 761± 2 96( P<0 .0 1 ) ;LPC亦能浓度依赖性( 1 nmol· L-1- 1 0μmol· L-1)诱导 BCMSMC增殖 ,在 LPC浓度为 1 μmol· L-1时促增殖作用达坪值 ,A595nm由 0 .0 60± 0 .0 0 9增至 0 .1 0 0± 0 .0 1 5( P<0 .0 1 ) .丝裂原激活蛋白激酶 ( MAPK)特异性抑制剂 PD980 59( 2 - 50 μmol· L-1) ,血小板衍生生长因子受体抑制剂酪氨酸磷酸化抑制剂 AG 1 2 96( 2 -50 μmol· L-1)以及蛋白质酪氨酸激酶抑制剂除莠霉素 A( 2 - 1 0μmol· L-1)能浓度依赖性地抑制LPC的上述作用 .表明 LPC能促进 BCMSMC增殖 ,其细胞内信号转导与 MAPK途径有关 .     

Muscarinic receptors in canine colonic circular smooth muscle. II. Signal transduction pathways.

We have, in the accompanying work, demonstrated the coexistence of M2 and M3 muscarinic receptors in the circular smooth muscle of canine colon. In the present study, the effects of muscarinic receptor stimulation on phosphoinositide turnover and adenylate cyclase activity were examined. In myo-[3H]inositol-labeled circular smooth muscle strips, carbachol caused a concentration-dependent (EC50 = 5 microM) increase in [3H]inositol phosphate production. The more M3 receptor-selective muscarinic antagonist pirenzepine (KB = 53 nM) was approximately 60 times more potent than the more M2-selective agent AF-DX 116 (KB = 3 microM) in blocking carbachol-elicited accumulation of [3H]inositol phosphates. The carbachol-stimulated increase in [3H]inositol phosphate accumulation was not affected by pretreatment of the tissue with pertussis toxin (200 ng/ml, 3 hr). Within the first minute, carbachol (100 microM) caused a rapid and transient increase of [3H]inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate production that oscillated continuously in the presence of agonist (120 min). The accumulation of [3H]inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate was also extremely rapid, reaching a peak at 15 sec. The accumulation of [3H]inositol monophosphate was delayed and progressively increased over 30 min. [3H]inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate, although not detectable in the first minute, accumulated to significant levels over 30 min in the presence of agonist. Addition of carbachol in the adenylate cyclase assay caused inhibition of forskolin-stimulated [32P]cAMP production and blocked forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation in the intact tissue. The inhibitory effects of carbachol on adenylate cyclase were blocked by atropine, AF-DX 116, and 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine methobromide but were unaffected by the more M3-selective agent pirenzepine (1 microM). Pretreatment of tissues with pertussis toxin completely eliminated M2 receptor-mediated inhibition of adenylate cyclase activity, without altering inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate accumulation. We conclude that muscarinic receptor stimulation of inositol trisphosphate production is mediated by the M3 receptor coupled to a pertussis toxin-insensitive GTP-binding protein and results in the rapid formation of inositol tetrakisphosphate, whereas inhibition of adenylate cyclase activity is mediated by the M2 subtype of muscarinic receptor coupled to the pertussis toxin-sensitive GTP-binding protein Gi.     

Signal transduction and modulating pathways in tryptamine-evoked vasopressor responses of the rat isolated perfused mesenteric bed

Tryptamine is an endogenous and dietary indoleamine-based trace amine implicated in cardiovascular pathologies, including hypertension, migraine and myocardial infarction. This study aimed at identifying the signalling pathways for the vasoconstrictor response to tryptamine in rat isolated perfused mesenteric arterial beds and co-released vasodilator modulators of tryptamine-mediated vasoconstriction. Tryptamine caused concentration-dependent vasoconstriction of the mesenteric bed, measured as increases in perfusion pressure. These were inhibited by the 5-HT_2A receptor antagonist, ritanserin, indicating mediation via 5-HT_2A receptors. The response was inhibited by the phospholipase C (PLC) and phospholipase A₂ (iPLA₂) inhibitors, U-73122 and PACOCF₃, suggesting involvement of phospholipase pathways. Activation of these pathways by tryptamine releases cyclooxygenase (COX) products since indomethacin (non-selective inhibitor of COX-1/2) and nimesulide (selective COX-2 inhibitor) reduced the vasoconstriction. The most likely COX vasoconstrictor product was prostaglandin PGE₂ since the responses to tryptamine were reduced by AH-6809, a non-selective EP₁ receptor antagonist. Involvement of the Rho-kinase pathway in the tryptamine-evoked vasoconstriction was also indicated by its reduction by the Rho-kinase inhibitors, Y-27,632 and fasudil. The tryptamine vasoconstriction is modulated by the co-released endothelial vasodilator, nitric oxide. Thus, circulating tryptamine can regulate mesenteric blood flow through a cascade of signalling pathways secondary to stimulation of 5-HT_2A receptors.     

Signal transduction inhibitors as radiosensitizers

DNA double strand breaks are the pivotal cellular damage induced by ionizing radiation. A plethora of molecular and cellular processes are activated as part of the cellular stress response that result in cell cycle arrest and induction of the DNA-repair machinery to restore the damage of DNA or to activate a cell death program. However ionizing radiation also initiates signal transduction cascades that are generated at cellular sites distant from and independent of DNA-damage. These signaling processes are similar to hormone activated growth factor receptor controlled signal transduction cascades and represent interesting targets for anticancer treatment modalities combining ionizing radiation with molecular defined pharmacological compounds. Activation of these signal transduction cascades upon irradiation or upregulation of growth factor mediated pathways due to oncogene-transformation often contribute to an acquired or inherent treatment resistance in malignant cells. Therefore pharmacological compounds inhibiting specific key-entities of these signal transduction cascades potentially sensitize for radiation induced cell death. Here we describe current preclinical concepts of combined treatment strategies with locoregional-applied ionizing radiation and molecular defined signal transduction inhibitors to overcome a high treatment threshold in tumor cells.     

Signal transduction in wound pharmacology

Growth factors such as TGF-beta, PDGF and FGF are thought to play important roles in wound healing. However, their biological activity and signal transduction during wound repair remain poorly understood. Growth factors are often ligands for receptor tyrosine kinase and receptor serine/threonine kinases. With recent advances in signal transduction by receptor kinases, we are beginning to understand the underlying mechanism of how growth factors may regulate cutaneous wound repair. In this paper, we will describe the pharmacological effects of growth factors on wound healing, and discuss the potential underlying signaling mechanisms. Thus, we hope to provide the basis for designing more specific therapeutics for wound healing in the near future.