Enteral Nutrition for Feeding Severely Underfed Patients with Anorexia Nervosa

Severe undernutrition nearly always leads to marked changes in body spaces (e.g., alterations of intra-extracellular water) and in body masses and composition (e.g., overall and compartmental stores of phosphate, potassium, and magnesium). In patients with severe undernutrition it is almost always necessary to use oral nutrition support and/or artificial nutrition, besides ordinary food; enteral nutrition should be a preferred route of feeding if there is a functional accessible gastrointestinal tract. Refeeding of severely malnourished patients represents two very complex and conflicting tasks: (1) to avoid “refeeding syndrome” caused by a too fast correction of malnutrition; (2) to avoid “underfeeding” caused by a too cautious rate of refeeding. The aim of this paper is to discuss the modality of refeeding severely underfed patients and to present our experience with the use of enteral tube feeding for gradual correction of very severe undernutrition whilst avoiding refeeding syndrome, in 10 patients aged 22 ± 11.4 years and with mean initial body mass index (BMI) of 11.2 ± 0.7 kg/m². The mean BMI increased from 11.2 ± 0.7 kg/m² to 17.3 ± 1.6 kg/m² and the mean body weight from 27.9 ± 3.3 to 43.0 ± 5.7 kg after 90 days of intensive in-patient treatment (p < 0.0001). Caloric intake levels were established after measuring resting energy expenditure by indirect calorimetry, and nutritional support was performed with enteral feeding. Vitamins, phosphate, and potassium supplements were administered during refeeding. All patients achieved a significant modification of BMI; none developed refeeding syndrome. In conclusion, our findings show that, even in cases of extreme undernutrition, enteral feeding may be a well-tolerated way of feeding.     

The use of parenteral nutrition in a severely malnourished hemodialysis patient with hypercalcemia.

There is a high prevalence of protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) in chronic dialysis patients. Causes of PEM include the catabolic effects of hemodialysis treatments, acidemia associated with end-stage renal disease, common comorbid conditions, and uremia-induced anorexia. Morbidity and mortality increase with PEM. Before considering parenteral nutrition (PN) as a nutrition intervention in a maintenance dialysis patient, all other efforts to promote optimal nutrition need to be exhausted. The first step is careful evaluation of protein-energy status, followed by intensive nutrition counseling. If necessary, this is followed by oral nutrition supplementation, appetite stimulation, enteral tube feedings, and finally PN. Short-term parenteral nutrition (PN) became a crucial component of the management of a 38-year-old hemodialysis (HD) patient who endured serious complications after kidney transplant rejection. A profound and prolonged malnourished state followed her treatment for necrotizing pancreatitis. She had developed persistent hypercalcemia believed secondary to tertiary hyperparathyroidism (HPT) and immobilization. Later, she developed hungry bone syndrome (HBS) after parathyroidectomy (PTX). She also developed refeeding syndrome after initiation of PN. The patient's persistent, poorly understood hypercalcemia did not resolve even after PTX and removal of all other sources of vitamin D and calcium from her feedings, medications, and dialysis bath. The close communication of the inpatient and outpatient dialysis multidisciplinary teams became a key component to the successful outcome in this complex patient.     

Review of the refeeding syndrome.

Refeeding syndrome describes a constellation of metabolic disturbances that occur as a result of reinstitution of nutrition to patients who are starved or severely malnourished. Patients can develop fluid and electrolyte disorders, especially hypophosphatemia, along with neurologic, pulmonary, cardiac, neuromuscular, and hematologic complications. We reviewed literature on refeeding syndrome and the associated electrolyte abnormalities, fluid disturbances, and associated complications. In addition to assessing scientific literature, we also considered clinical experience and judgment in developing recommendations for prevention and treatment of refeeding syndrome. The most important steps are to identify patients at risk for developing refeeding syndrome, institute nutrition support cautiously, and correct and supplement electrolyte and vitamin deficiencies to avoid refeeding syndrome. We provide suggestions for the prevention of refeeding syndrome and suggestions for treatment of electrolyte disturbances and complications in patients who develop refeeding syndrome, according to evidence in the literature, the pathophysiology of refeeding syndrome, and clinical experience and judgment.     

Stratégie de prise en charge nutritionnelle de l'enfant et de l'adolescent (Nutrition orale, entérale, parentérale)

Children are especially threatened by malnutrition, because of the high protein-energy cost of growth. Any nutritional deficiency is the source of protein energy malnutrition, which compounds the problems of underlying disease. The protein-energy cost of catch-up growth is particularly high, and should lead to a rigorous adjustment of nutritional supply to prevent metabolic disorders associated with refeeding syndrome (directly related to the homeostatic change secondary to severe protein energy malnutrition). If the gastrointestinal tract can be used for refeeding, it should be used (oral or enteral nutrition). When the gastrointestinal tract is unable to meet the protein and energy requirements, parenteral nutrition is required. Catch-up growth may be achieved by using appropriate nutritional support.     

Refeeding syndrome in hospitalized pediatric patients.

Refeeding syndrome has been well documented over the years, primarily through case reports and literature reviews. Awareness of refeeding syndrome is crucial in preventing the occurrence of, and the metabolic and physiologic complications associated with, aggressive nutrition support in malnourished populations. Once compromised patients have been identified to be at risk of refeeding syndrome, nutrition rehabilitation should be cautiously initiated. We have found a lack of clinical validation for instituting nutrition support in high-risk pediatric patients who may develop refeeding syndrome. The purposes of our investigation were to determine the incidence of refeeding syndrome in pediatric hospitalized patients beginning on parenteral nutrition and to determine how consistently the Department of Clinical Nutrition standards of care for screening and prevention were followed at our institution.     

Hypophosphatemia secondary to oral refeeding in anorexia nervosa

OBJECTIVE: Hypophosphatemia is a well-known complication of the refeeding syndrome in severe cases of anorexia nervosa, described mostly as a result of refeeding with total parenteral nutrition. Few cases have been reported secondary to either nasogastric or oral refeeding. METHOD: The authors present three cases in which hypophosphatemia developed secondary to oral refeeding in severe anorexia nervosa. RESULTS: All 3 patients developed significant hypophosphatemia, to a low of 0.9 mg/dl in two cases and a low of 1. 7 mg/dl in the third. The first patient received close to 3,000 calories per day, along with intravenous fluids, in the hospital; the other 2 patients ate large amounts for several days at home. Caloric restriction and replenishment with phosphorous resulted in a rapid return of phosphorous values to normal levels. DISCUSSION: Those who treat severely malnourished patients with eating disorders, whether as inpatients or outpatients, need to be vigilant for the development of the refeeding syndrome, even in patients receiving oral refeeding alone.     

Is enteral nutrition optimally used in hospitalized patients? A study of the practice of nutrition in a Swedish hospital

Thirty patients with parenteral nutrition were studied in order to evaluate if they could be given enteral nutrition instead. Based upon absolute and relative contraindications for enteral nutrition, we calculated that 80% of the patients were possible candidates for enteral nutrition. Long-term use of parenteral nutrition may cause complications. Besides metabolic and other advantages when enteral nutrition is used, economical gains are also important. We have calculated an estimated annual net profit of US$ 357,000 in our hospital, if enteral instead of parenteral feeding is used in patients suitable for the former type of feeding. This implies that it is really cost-beneficial to consider enteral nutrition in hospitalized patients. Although parenteral nutrition will continue to have its place in the management of different occasions, increased use of enteral nutrition may result in improved patient outcomes and improved cost-effectiveness.     

The importance of the refeeding syndrome.

In this review we discuss the refeeding syndrome. This potentially lethal condition can be defined as severe electrolyte and fluid shifts associated with metabolic abnormalities in malnourished patients undergoing refeeding, whether orally, enterally, or parenterally. It can be associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Clinical features are fluid-balance abnormalities, abnormal glucose metabolism, hypophosphatemia, hypomagnesemia, and hypokalemia. In addition, thiamine deficiency can occur. We describe which patient groups are more at risk for this syndrome and the clinical management of the condition.     

Effects of cyclic enteral nutrition on the immunological status of malnourished patients

The effects of 2 weeks of refeeding by cyclic enteral nutrition on chronically malnourished (mean global nutritional deficiency 19.9 +/- 1.1%) hospitalized patients were assessed in a prospective study with special attention paid to immunological status. All patients were immunodeficient, with cell-mediated immunity being more affected than humoral immunity. After 2 weeks of refeeding, nutritional status had improved by 29.8%. Initially abnormal parameters of humoral immunity (IgM, C3 and C4) improved significantly (P < 0.05) between day 0 and day 15. The following cell-mediated immunity parameters also improved significantly (P < 0.05): CD8, monocyte count, natural killer cell activity and skin tests. Short-term refeeding by cyclic enteral nutrition appears to be a safe and effective way of improving immunodeficiency in chronically malnourished patients, with predictable consequences on infection.     

Bio-ecological control of acute pancreatitis: the role of enteral nutrition, pro and synbiotics

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Increasing knowledge, both experimental and clinical, supports the fact that early and aggressive enteral nutrition has the capacity to reduce superinflammation and prevent infections in severe acute pancreatitis. Clearly, the main role of enteral nutrition is to boost the immune system, and not, at least initially, to provide calories. Whereas enteral nutrition improves, parenteral nutrition reduces immune functions. RECENT FINDINGS: The content of enteral nutrition solutions is more important than the route of administration per se. Antioxidants, plant fibres and live lactic acid bacteria are especially important for boosting the immune system. Recent studies support the fact that enteral nutrition and the supply of fibres and live lactic acid bacteria may significantly reduce the rate of infections. So far none of the treatments has been able to reduce the incidence of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome and multiorgan dysfunction syndrome. A recent unpublished study indicates, however, that the systemic inflammatory response syndrome and multiorgan dysfunction syndrome can also be reduced if much higher doses of lactic acid bacteria and a combination of several bioactive lactic acid bacteria are used (synbiotics). SUMMARY: Immunosupporting enteral nutrition with synbiotics is an important tool to control superinflammation and infection, and might also reduce the multiorgan dysfunction syndrome and systemic inflammatory response syndrome. It is essential that it is supplied early, if possible in the emergency room. New autopositioning regurgitation-resistant feeding tubes are available to facilitate such a policy.     

Enteral Nutrition Support to Treat Malnutrition in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Malnutrition is a common consequence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Diet has an important role in the management of IBD, as it prevents and corrects malnutrition. It is well known that diet may be implicated in the aetiology of IBD and that it plays a central role in the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal-tract disease. Often oral nutrition alone is not sufficient in the management of IBD patients, especially in children or the elderly, and must be combined with oral supplementation or replaced with tube enteral nutrition. In this review, we describe several different approaches to enteral nutrition—total parenteral, oral supplementation and enteral tube feeding—in terms of results, patients compliance, risks and and benefits. We also focus on the home entaral nutrition strategy as the future goal for treating IBD while focusing on patient wellness.     

Dietetic practice in refeeding syndrome

Background: The physiology and consequences of refeeding syndrome have long been recognised, although its management continues to be debated, despite the recommendations made by The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) in their guideline ‘Nutrition Support in Adults’ (2006). The present study aims to assess current dietetic opinion and practice in this area, as well as whether the NICE recommendations have been adopted. Methods: An anonymous, self‐completed Internet survey was designed investigating current practice and opinions on the NICE (2006) guidance on this subject. A link to the questionnaire was distributed with a covering letter via e‐mail to the heads of department of National Health Service Trusts in the London region, UK, requesting that it be disseminated to all dietitians working with adults. After the closing date, all responses were collated and analysed. Results: The survey elicited a 30.8% response rate. Some 89.8% of respondents have read the NICE guidance on Nutrition Support in Adults (2006) and 66.9% have changed their practice regarding refeeding syndrome management as a result. Sixty‐two percent do not wait for biochemistry to normalise before commencing nutrition. Ninety‐two percent of respondents completed the mini case studies indicating that current practice is inconsistent among dietitians. Neither NICE criteria for recognising patients at risk of refeeding, nor the recommended starting rates are universally followed. Seventy‐five percent continue to supplement electrolytes reactively. Conclusions: Although limited by a small sample size, the findings of the present study suggest that dietetic practice regarding refeeding syndrome management remains inconsistent with the recommendations made by NICE, although some aspects have been adopted.     

Compensatory enteral hyperalimentation for management of patients with severe short bowel syndrome

In order to evaluate the effects of an unrestricted, compensatory, enteral hyperalimentation in patients with short bowel syndrome, we retrospectively selected from 128 consecutive patients with extensive small bowel resection a group of 25 who developed under this regimen a massive protracted diarrhea (fecal weight 2005-6188 g/day). All the patients but one were weaned from parenteral nutrition by the eighth day after admission. Although fecal weight increased in relation to the increase of the enteral intake, there was a significant gain of body weight, serum-albumin, and creatinine-height index and an improved fluid and electrolyte balance through the period of hospitalization. By contrast, 18 of the 25 patients developed hypocalcemia and/or hypomagnesemia. After discharge (median follow-up, three years), most patients resumed normal social activity. It is concluded that exclusively enteral hyperalimentation can stabilize most patients with severe short bowel syndrome even in the case of massive fecal losses.     

Conséquences digestives de l’anorexie mentale

Gastrointestinal disorders are almost a constant finding in patients with anorexia nervosa and induce a major functional burden as well as obstacles to refeeding. All the parts of the gastrointestinal tract may be involved: benching, delayed gastric emptying, abdominal distension and bloating, delayed transit or terminal constipation. Anorectic patients often refer for gastrointestinal disorders which may delay the diagnosis of the eating disorder because of repeated gastroenterological investigations and also because eating disorders are poorly acknowledged by gastroenterologists. The pathophysiology of gastrointestinal disorders during anorexia nervosa is still poorly understood; it may involve the consequences of malnutrition, altered neuropeptidergic regulation associated with the eating disorder or immunological alterations. Gastrointestinal symptoms must be systematically looked for in anorectic patients and actively treated to ease the implication of the patient to the oral refeeding program or to enteral nutrition. Conversely, eating disorders should be suspected in case of severe dyspepsia or irritable bowel syndrome with weight loss.     

肠内营养再灌食对肠瘘病人血清蛋白和肝功能的早期影响

目的: 观察EN再灌食对长期禁食的肠瘘病人血清蛋白、肝功能的早期影响. 方法: 对54例长期饥饿或PN的肠外瘘病人在EN支持前和支持后第1、3、5、9、14天的血清蛋白、肝胆生化指标进行前瞻性观察. 结果:血清ALB于EN支持后第1天下降,尔后逐渐回升,PA、Fn于EN支持后第3天升高,TF于第7天升高,ALT、AST、AKP、γ-GT于EN支持后5～9 d升高,后逐渐下降,并与EN支持前是否淤胆有关.总胆红素于EN支持后逐渐下降.2例病人发生胆汁淤积性胆囊炎.以上改变均有显著性意义. 结论: 肠内营养再灌食病人EN支持早期蛋白的合成代谢增加,EN支持是缓解肝胆损害的有效途径.     

Early nutrition support in critical care: a European perspective

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Today, early nutrition support is considered standard care in most ICUs. The recommended method is the enteral route, although there is only minor evidence for this. Often inadequate delivery of energy and a cumulative energy deficit are implied. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the indication for early enteral nutrition or immunonutrition and to discuss the application of additional parenteral nutrition. RECENT FINDINGS: The indication for early enteral nutrition is also supported by guidelines for enteral nutrition recently published by the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism. Some more recent results strengthen the indication for a special formula in acute respiratory distress syndrome and septic patients. A recent metaanalysis has shown that parenteral nutrition is superior to delayed enteral nutrition. Additional parenteral nutrition thus seems to be the way to avoid cumulative energy deficit associated with insufficient or no enteral nutrition. SUMMARY: Early enteral nutrition is recommended for critically ill patients, with special formulas indicated in specific subgroups of patients. If enteral nutrition is insufficient or fails, parenteral nutrition should be instituted, respecting the often reduced demand for exogenous substrates in critically ill patients.     

术后早期应用肠内营养五例报告

目的总结术后早期(24～36小时)肠内营养应用的经验，疗效及并发症。