Cranial computed tomographic scans have little impact on management of bacterial meningitis.

OBJECTIVE--To assess which clinical features predict an increased likelihood of an abnormal computed tomographic (CT) scan and how frequently CT influences management of bacterial meningitis. DESIGN--Retrospective patient series. SETTING--University-affiliated hospitals in Dallas, Tex. PATIENTS--Three hundred thirty-seven children with bacterial meningitis, of whom 107 (32%) had undergone CT scans. RESULTS--One or more abnormalities were found in 52% of the initial scans. The most frequent indication for CT at our institution was persistent or secondary fever, and in 56% of these children, subdural effusion or empyema was noted. However, findings on CT rarely predicted a need for intervention. In contrast, children with focal seizures or focal neurologic signs were more likely to have brain parenchymal changes. Scans in 19 patients (12%) prompted surgical intervention, most commonly drainage of a subdural collection. The conditions of only nine children (8.4% of those who had undergone CT scans) improved following intervention that was initiated because of findings on CT. CONCLUSIONS--Although CT scans are frequently abnormal in children with meningitis, CT seldom reveals findings that require specific intervention.     

Delayed cerebrospinal fluid sterilization and adverse outcome of bacterial meningitis in infants and children

To determine the clinical importance of CSF cultures that are persistently positive for pathogens in patients treated for meningitis with the new cephalosporins, the records of 301 infants and children with bacterial meningitis enrolled prospectively in four clinical efficacy trials of cefuroxime or ceftriaxone therapy were reviewed. CSF culture results were positive for 20 patients and they were sterile at 18 to 36 hours after start of therapy for 281 patients. Seizures, subdural effusions, and hemiparesis were found significantly more often during hospitalization in those with delayed sterilization of CSF. Children with persistently positive cultures had a significantly higher incidence of neurologic abnormalities at the time of hospital discharge (45% v 19%) and at follow-up (41% v 13%) and of moderate to profound hearing impairment (35% v 15%) than did those with prompt sterilization of CSF. Repeat CSF examination is a useful prognostic indicator in infants and young children with bacterial meningitis.     

Reduction of antibiotic treatment of bacterial meningitis in children. Value of C-reactive protein monitoring

The duration of antibiotic treatment of bacterial meningitis is always a topical issue. In our study (58 children), 21 of 24 meningococcal meningitis were treated for 4 or 5 days, 16 of 22 Haemophilus influenzae and 4 of 6 pneumococcal meningitis were treated for 7 days without increase in neurologic sequelae. A return of blood CRP levels to normal values was observed in all these patients simultaneously. Thus, CRP seems to be a good biological parameter for discussing treatment discontinuation. Furthermore, in some complications such as subdural effusion, a new increase of CRP levels was observed after the 5th day. A sequential follow-up of CRP levels at days J0, 5, 7, 10, seems a very useful tool for management of bacterial meningitis.     

317 例儿童化脓性脑膜炎临床分析

目的 研究化脓性脑膜炎(PM)患儿的临床特点及治疗转归。方法 对317 例年龄在1 个月至15 岁的PM 患儿的病例资料进行回顾性分析。结果 PM 发病以婴儿(198 例,62.6%)居多,多有呼吸道前驱感染(171 例,53.9%)。临床以发热、惊厥、颅内高压为主要表现,惊厥在婴儿中发生率较高(152 例,93.6%)。主要并发症为硬膜下积液(95 例,29.9%),其中22 例头颅影像学未提示而直接通过硬膜下穿刺诊断;68 例行硬膜下穿刺,其中62 例于穿刺后3~5 d 内体温恢复正常。多因素logisic 回归分析显示,年龄、CSF蛋白≥ 1 g/L 是影响PM 患儿并发症和后遗症发生的主要因素(分别OR=0.518、1.524,均P<0.05)。治疗上初诊时以第三代头孢为首选用药,万古霉素、碳青霉烯类可作为替代。在对部分患儿出院后1~3 个月的随访发现,14.4%(13/90)发生延迟血管炎反应。结论 PM 多发于婴儿,惊厥在婴儿中易发生。小婴儿、CSF 蛋白≥ 1 g/L 时会增加PM 患儿并发症和后遗症的发生风险。硬膜下穿刺对硬膜下积液的诊断及治疗均有价值。部分治愈患儿存在延迟血管炎反应,应在出院后1~3 个月内进行随访。     

Prolonged and secondary fever in childhood bacterial meningitis

In order to study the causes of prolonged and secondary fever in bacterial meningitis, a group of 102 infants and children with proven bacterial meningitis were studied. The causative agent wasHaemophilus influenzae in 58% of patients,Streptococcus pneumoniae in 25% andNeisseria meningitidis in 17%. Prolonged fever was observed in 12% of the patients. The established causes include, in order of frequency, subdural effusion, drug fever, otitis media, gastroenteritis and urinary tract infection. Secondary fever was noted in 18% of the patients. The causes, in order of frequency, were urinary tract infection, subdural effusion, otitis media, phlebitis, pneumonia and drug fever. Neither relapse of the meningitis nor inadequate response to antibiotic therapy was the cause for prolonged or secondary fever. Neurological sequalae were observed in 21 patients. There was no correlation between prolonged or secondary fever and neurological sequalae. We conclude that prolonged and secondary fever in patients with treated bacterial meningitis is rarely caused by the primary infection.     

化脓性脑膜炎合并硬膜下积液80例分析

目的 探讨更合理的化脓性脑膜炎合并硬膜下积液的诊断与治疗方法。方法 收集1992年1月至1999年12月确认为化脓性脑膜炎的病例291例，男188例，女103例，年龄10d至13岁。结果 291例化脓性脑膜炎中并发硬膜下积液者80例，发病率为27．5％，年龄在15d－16个月，均为前囟门未闭的儿童。在并发硬膜下积液的80例中以肺炎双球菌脑膜炎为多，占37例（46．3％），其次为嗜血流感杆菌脑膜炎，21例（26．3％）。不同细菌脑膜炎硬膜下积液的发生率不同。硬膜下积液多出现在病程的4－10d。80例合并硬膜下积液的病人中，单纯性积液7例；硬膜下感染45例；积脓28例，2例死亡。结论 硬膜下积液、感染或积脓的病因尚不明确，可能与化脓性脑膜炎时，脑血管通透性增强，脑血管表浅静脉发生炎性栓塞，细菌随血液循环进入硬膜下腔等因素有关。诊断明确者经过积极合理的治疗，成活者，积液均于6个月内吸收。     

Prospective, randomized, investigator-blinded study of the efficacy and safety of meropenem vs. cefotaxime therapy in bacterial meningitis in children. Meropenem Meningitis Study Group.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the efficacy and safety of meropenem with cefotaxime for the treatment of infants and children with bacterial meningitis. METHODS: Infants and children with strongly suspected or documented bacterial meningitis were randomly assigned in a prospective multicenter study to receive either meropenem or cefotaxime. Patients were assessed at the end of therapy and at 5 to 7 weeks and 5 to 7 months after the end of treatment for the presence of neurologic and sensory neural sequelae. RESULTS: A total of 258 children were randomized to either treatment group. A further 8 patients with suspected pneumococcal meningitis were treated with meropenem without randomization. Of the randomized patients 154 were fully evaluable, 79 in the meropenem group and 75 in the cefotaxime group. At the end of treatment there were no significant differences in clinical outcome between the two treatment groups. Clinical cure with or without sequelae was achieved in 97 and 96% of the meropenem- and cefotaxime-treated patients, respectively. At the end of treatment and at 5 to 7 weeks, 46 and 54% of meropenem patients were cured with no sequelae, respectively. Corresponding results for cefotaxime patients were 56 and 58%. All pathogens were eradicated. In total 37 patients had seizures during treatment, 15 (12%) in the meropenem and 22 (17%) in the cefotaxime group. None of the seizures was considered to be drug-related. CONCLUSIONS: This trial shows that meropenem is suitable therapy for bacterial meningitis in infants and children and that it offers an efficacy and safety profile similar to that of cefotaxime.     

Thrombocytosis and thrombocytopenia in childhood bacterial meningitis.

To assess factors affecting the development of reactive thrombocytosis during bacterial meningitis, thrombocyte counts of 311 children with cerebrospinal fluid culture-positive bacterial meningitis were followed during hospitalization. Thrombocytosis (platelet counts greater than 500 x 10(9)/liter) was seen in 49% of the patients after the first week of treatment. Thrombocyte counts were higher in infants and in patients with long duration of illness before admission. Subdural effusion and cephalosporin therapy were associated with more pronounced thrombocytosis We found no relation between thrombocytosis and neurologic complications, but the patients who died developed thrombocytopenia instead of thrombocytosis. The difference between the thrombocyte curves of the surviving and dying patients might be utilized in predicting the final outcome in the severest cases of bacterial meningitis. We speculate that inflammatory cytokines, especially interleukin 1-beta, induce reactive thrombocytosis in bacterial meningitis.     

Cefuroxime in bacterial meningitis.

In order to find an alternative antimicrobial treatment for childhood bacterial meningitis 30 infants and children with meningitis, due to Haemophilus influenzae (n = 13), Neisseria meningitis (n = 9), Streptococcus pneumoniae (n = 5), or meningitis of unknown aetiology (n = 3), were treated with cefuroxime, 200 mg/kg a day, as the only antibiotic. Prompt clinical and bacteriological responses were noted and every patient was cured. Cefuroxime concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid ranged from 1.1 to 18.8 (mean 7.0) mg/l at the beginning and from 0.5 to 4.1 (mean 1.6) mg/l at the end of treatment. Three infants developed symptomatic sterile subdural effusions which were managed by repeated subdural aspirations while still on antibiotics. Cefuroxime concentrations in the subdural fluid ranged from 17.4 to 32.4 mg/l. At follow-up 2 patients had moderate unilateral hearing loss and one had mild ataxia. We conclude that cefuroxime is effective and safe for the treatment of childhood bacterial meningitis caused by any of these common organisms.     

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??Objective??To investigate the risk factors of purulent meningitis complicated with subdural effusion in infants and young children. Methods??The clinical data of the infants and young children who were diagnosed with purulent meningitis in PICU of Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University from January 2014 to December 2017 were analyzed retrospectively. All of them were divided into 2 groups according to whether there was complication of subdural effusion. The statistical data were analyzed by SPSS 20.0 software. Results??There were significant differences in hemoglobin??C reactive protein and protein in cerebrospinal fluid between control group and subdural effusion group??P??0.05??. Logistic regression analysis showed that hemoglobin??OR??0.940??95%CI??0.899—0.998????C reactive protein??OR??1.015??95%CI??1.004—1.028?? and protein in cerebrospinal fluid??OR??2.490??95%CI??1.151—6.315?? were independent risk factors for purulent meningitis complicated with subdural effusion??P??0.05??. Conclusion??Infants and young children diagnosed with purulent meningitis are with lower hemoglobin. Higher C reactive protein and higher protein in cerebrospinal fluid are likely to be complicated with subdural effusion.     

Ommaya囊置入外引流术在幼儿化脓性脑膜炎合并硬膜下积液治疗中的应用

目的探讨应用Ommaya囊置入外引流术治疗幼儿化脓性脑膜炎合并硬膜下积液的临床效果。方法2010年6月至2013年6月我们对38例化脓性脑膜炎合并硬膜下积液患儿,在抗感染治疗的同时,置入Ommaya囊持续外引流,观察临床症状的改善程度,并行头颅CT检查硬膜下积液吸收情况。结果28例患儿经持续引流5～7d后,发热、头痛及呕吐症状均明显减轻,又反复穿刺囊体3～6次并引流,2个月后复查头颅CT,提示29例硬膜下积液明显减少,9例无变化;术后1年复查,32例硬膜下积液消失,3例明显减少,3例因脑膜炎控制效果差,症状反复,放弃治疗。结论Ommaya囊可以长期置入,反复穿刺引流,较传统颅骨钻孔直接外引流,减少了感染风险,是治疗幼儿化脓性脑膜炎合并硬膜下积液的一种有效方法。     

Cerebral infarction in Hemophilus influenzae type B meningitis

Over a 5-year period, 8 (4.7%) of the 170 children diagnosed at Milwaukee Children's Hospital as having Hemophilus influenzae type b (HITB) meningitis developed cerebral infarction. Compared with children who did not develop infarcts or with children who developed other neurologic complications, such as subdural effusion, empyema, or meningoencephalitis, these children had significantly higher cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leukocyte counts on initial lumbar puncture and had a greater likelihood of seizure activity. In seven of eight patients with cerebral infarction, a focal or generalized seizure heralded neurologic findings associated with abnormal radiographic studies. Two of the eight patients died, and two were permanently severely damaged. In the other four patients, there was eventual recovery from gross neurologic deficits. The mortality in patients with HITB meningitis complicated by cerebral infarction (25%) was significantly greater than that in other patients with HITB meningitis (0.6%). The pathophysiology of infarction in patients with bacterial meningitis is uncertain but may in part relate to arteriospasm. Cerebral infarction is a serious, and in the present experience, not uncommon complication of H. influenzae meningitis.     

The fluctuations of neuron-specific enolase (NSE) levels of cerebrospinal fluid during bacterial meningitis: The relationship between the fluctuations of NSE levels and neurological complications or outcome

Neuron-specific enolase (NSE) is one of the glycolytic enzymes distributed exclusively in neurons. It was measured serially in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of 10 children with bacterial meningitis during the illness using radio-immunoassay. The relationship between CSF-NSE levels and neurological complications or outcome was examined. CSF-NSE levels were significantly higher in the patients with bacterial meningitis than in the patients with the other central nervous system (CNS) infectious diseases, suggesting that CNS damage in those patients with bacterial meningitis was exacerbated. As CSF-NSE levels increased to above 25 ng/mL in the acute phase, all patients except one had subdural effusion. In those patients whose CSF-NSE level rose again during the illness, CNS complications or sequelae occurred. CSF-NSE may be a useful prognostic factor for predicting CNS damage in childhood bacterial meningitis.     

Successful treatment with linezolid of meningitis complicated with subdural empyema in a 6-month-old boy

Recent findings have focused on the possible role of linezolid as a suitable candidate for the treatment of central nervous system infections. The linezolid treatment for meningitis was sporadically reported in adults but there was no report in children. Here, we present a 6-month-old boy with meningitis and subdural empyema which was unresponsive to more conventional agents but successfully treated with linezolid therapy. A previously healthy 6-month-old boy was referred to our clinic for deteriorating general condition with fever, vomiting and seizures. He had fever and tense-bulging anterior fontanelle. Based on his first cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) results, empirical antibiotic therapy for bacterial meningitis consisting of vancomycin and ceftriaxone was started. However, CSF culture yielded no micro-organisms but blood culture showed coagulase-negative Staphylococci. On the 7th day, he still had high fever and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and serum CRP levels had risen by 105 mm/h and 36.2 mg/dl, respectively. On 10th day, computerized cranial tomography showed bilateral frontoparietal subdural empyema. Purulent material was evacuated by burr hole, and gram stains of the material showed polymorphonuclear leukocytes and no microorganisms. Clinical and CSF findings of our case were, unresponsiveness to vancomycin, ceftriaxone and consecutive meropenem treatment while we still observed subdural empyema during these treatments. For this reason we started linezolid 10 mg/kg twice daily. Clinical signs improved dramatically, with both completely normal neurological findings and normalization of CSF and radiological findings. To the of our best knowledge, linezolid treatment of meningitis in children has not been reported previously. Clinical and CSF findings of our case were improved completely with linezolid treatment. Also, control cranial computerized tomography showed the total recovery of subdural empyema. Here we present the youngest case with meningitis which was successfully treated with linezolid treatment.     

细菌性脑膜炎并硬膜下积液的相关因素

目的 探讨细菌性脑膜炎并硬膜下积液的因素,减少、预防硬膜下积液的发生.方法 收集在本院住院的细菌性脑膜炎患儿88例,入院后予抗感染、脱水降颅压、退热、止惊等处理,完成影像学检查及腰椎穿刺术,检测血生化、脑脊液等.观察并追踪随访到患儿出院后0.5a,按是否并硬膜下积液分为硬膜下积液组及对照组.定期收集2组患儿相关检查和临床资料,应用相关分析等统计学方法探讨硬膜下积液发生的相关因素.结果 二组间CRP(t =2.469,P=0.016)、降钙素原(PCT)(t=2.172,P=0.034)及脑脊液蛋白(t =2.729,P=0.008)差异均有统计学意义.简单相关分析发现脑脊液蛋白与病程(r=0.642,P =0.045)、ESR(r=0.737,P=0.037)中度相关,脑脊液蛋白与CRP(r=0.924,P=0.008)、PCT(r=0.912,P=0.024)高度相关,脑脊液糖与脑脊液蛋白呈负相关(r=-0.655,P=0.040).等级相关分析发现CRP(Kendall's相关系数为0.707,P=0.020;Spearman's相关系数为0.822,P =0.007)、PCT( Kendall’s相关系数为0.687,P=0.040;Spearman's相关系数为0.762,P=0.031)、脑脊液蛋白(Kendall's相关系数为0.699,P=0.019;Spearman's相关系数为0.782,P=0.007)与硬膜下积液中度相关,ESR(Kendall's相关系数为0.442,P=0.032;Spearman's相关系数为0.514,P=0.023)与硬膜下积液低度相关.脑脊液糖、氯化物等与硬膜下积液无相关性(Pa＞0.05).结论 细菌性脑膜炎并硬膜下积液具有更高的炎性反应,临床上需注意减轻炎性反应、减少渗出以预防硬膜下积液.     

Comparative efficacy of ceftriaxone and cefuroxime for treatment of bacterial meningitis

To assess the comparative efficacy of cefuroxime and ceftriaxone for the treatment of bacterial meningitis, we reviewed the records from four prospective efficacy trials conducted at our institution. One hundred seventy-four infants and children received ceftriaxone and 159 received cefuroxime. The clinical characteristics of the two groups were comparable at admission. After 24 hours of therapy, routine cerebrospinal fluid cultures for all patients treated with ceftriaxone were sterile, whereas 9% of cerebrospinal fluid cultures were positive in cefuroxime-treated patients (p less than 0.001). More cefuroxime-treated patients had abnormal physical examinations at the time of discharge than did ceftriaxone-treated patients (39/159 vs 25/174, p = 0.02). At 6-week and 1-year follow-up examinations, there was no longer a statistically significant difference in the incidence of neurologic abnormalities between the two therapy groups, but the incidence of hearing impairment in one or both ears was higher in the cefuroxime (18%) than in the ceftriaxone (11%) treatment group. Both regimens are efficacious for the treatment of bacterial meningitis, but some patients may not respond as satisfactorily to cefuroxime as to ceftriaxone.     

Which febrile infants younger than two weeks of age are likely to have sepsis? A pilot study

During a 7-year period we prospectively studied 46 infants younger than 2 weeks of age with rectal temperatures of 100.6 degrees F or higher. Before performing a full laboratory evaluation for sepsis, house officers recorded their impressions of whether the infants were likely to have sepsis. Using the combination of impression of sepsis, white blood cell count and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, infants were assigned to one of two sepsis risk groups (high or low). All patients were hospitalized and treated with parenteral antibiotics. Sepsis or meningitis was diagnosed in 8.7% of the patients. Thirty-five of the 46 infants had sufficient data for risk group assignment. Sepsis or meningitis was diagnosed in 3 of 11 high risk infants vs. 0 of 24 low risk patients (P = 0.025). Of the 21 infants initially admitted without an identified bacterial source, 4 subsequently developed a bacterial complication, i.e. a bacterial focus that, although present at the time of admission, became apparent only after hospitalization. A bacterial complication was identified during the hospital course in 3 of 4 high risk infants vs. 1 of 17 low risk patients (P = 0.012).     

Group A streptococcal subdural empyema as a complication of varicella

Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus and Staphylococcus aureus are the 2 most common pathogens implicated in secondary invasive bacterial disease after varicella. We describe a 3-month-old male infant from British Columbia, Canada, who presented on day 5 of varicella skin rash with fever, seizures, lethargy, and evidence of intracranial hypertension. A prominent subdural empyema was documented, and Streptococcus pyogenes was recovered from the subdural fluid. Central nervous system bacterial complications should be part of the differential diagnosis for infants and children with chickenpox who present with fever, lethargy, focal seizures, or similar neurologic findings. This case illustrates the importance of universal varicella vaccination to prevent associated bacterial complications of chickenpox.     

Prospective study of computed tomography in acute bacterial meningitis

We performed serial CT scans at the time of admission and discharge, and again after 6 to 18 months, in children older than 2 months of age with bacterial meningitis. During the 2-year study period, 60 patients with bacterial meningitis were admitted to British Columbia's Children's Hospital. Forty-one were included in the study, two of whom died soon after admission. The infecting organism was Haemophilus influenzae in 29, Neisseria meningitidis in six, and Streptococcus pneumoniae in six. Abnormalities on the first two CT scans included subdural effusion in eight patients, focal infarction in five, and pus in the basal cisterns in one. All patients with focal infarction or cisternal pus had hemiparesis. Marked cerebral edema was seen in the two patients who died. Transient mild dilation of the subarachnoid space was a common finding; the size of the ventricles or subarachnoid space was increased on the second scan in 29 of 36 patients, and decreased to normal on the third scan in 30 of 33 patients. Clinical management was not influenced by the CT findings, which failed to reveal any clinically significant abnormalities that were not suspected on neurologic examination.     

Beta-glucuronidase in the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis and response to treatment

Aim: β-Glucuronidase activity is increased in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with bacterial meningitis. The aim of this study was to investigate the β-glucuronidase activity in the cell-free CSF of bacterial meningitis and its course during treatment, and compare it with other CSF parameters. Methods: The β-glucuronidase activity, cell number, protein concentration and CSF/blood glucose ratio were measured in 43 consecutive infants and children with bacterial meningitis, and 97 control subjects. Patients had one or two follow-up lumbar punctures. Results: The β-glucuronidase activity was increased early in bacterial meningitis, even when the other CSF parameters were undisturbed. Before treatment, the median activity in affected children was 136 μmoles 4-methylumbelliferone l ^-1  h ^-1 (range 44-826) and in controls 14 (7-23). In all patients who improved, the activity was lower in the follow-up CSF samples. Six to 12 h after starting treatment, the median activity was already reduced by 59%. The other CSF parameters showed a variability during the first 24 h of treatment independently of the course of the disease. Multiple comparisons of the CSF parameters in 17 patients who had two follow-up punctures showed that the β-glucuronidase activity was the best prognostic index.

Conclusion: β-Glucuronidase activity in the CSF is a reliable indicator of bacterial meningitis, which can identify the response to treatment early in the course of illness. The enzyme activity is increased early in the disease, even when the other laboratory parameters from the CSF remain normal.