Perioperative management of the older patient

With an ageing population, anaesthetists have increasing importance in taking care of the elderly undergoing surgery. Physiological changes, comorbidities, frailty and cognitive dysfunction conduce to adverse outcomes, institutionalization and mortality. This article looks into the physiological changes and anaesthetic considerations in the older patients. Preoperative assessment including use of the Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment, frailty, nutritional and cognitive assessments will be discussed. Prehabilitation can potentially modify frailty, improve outcome and reduce length of hospitalization. Preoperative nutritional therapy, where indicated, can improve nutritional status and reduce complications.Two important complications to avoid in the elderly are perioperative neurocognitive disorder (PND) and postoperative acute kidney injury (PO-AKI). PND is a predictor of poor outcome including mortality. Intraoperative electroencephalogram monitoring may help to decrease the incidence of delirium. PO-AKI is a common morbidity in elderly and its incidence can be reduced by appropriate fluid therapy and drug choice.     

Peri-operative optimisation of elderly and frail patients: a narrative review

With increasing life expectancy and technological advancement, provision of anaesthesia for elderly patients has become a significant part of the overall case-load. These patients are unique, not only because they are older with more propensity for comorbidity but a decline in physiological reserve and cognitive function invariably accompanies ageing; this can substantially impact peri-operative outcome and quality of recovery. Furthermore, it is not only morbidity and mortality that matters; quality of life is also especially relevant in this vulnerable population. Comprehensive geriatric assessment is a patient-centred and multidisciplinary approach to peri-operative care. The assessment of frailty has a central role in the pre-operative evaluation of the elderly. Other essential domains include optimisation of nutritional status, assessment of baseline cognitive function and proper approach to patient counselling and the decision-making process. Anaesthetists should be proactive in multidisciplinary care to achieve better outcomes; they are integral to the process.     

Development and evaluation of a novel pre-operative surgery school and behavioural change intervention for patients undergoing elective major surgery: Fit-4-Surgery School

Group pre-operative education has usually been limited to conditioning expectations and providing education. Prehabilitation has highlighted modifiable lifestyle factors that are amenable to change and may improve clinical outcomes. We instituted a pre-operative ‘Fit-4-Surgery School’ for patients scheduled for major surgery, to educate and promote healthy behaviour. We evaluated patients’ views having attended the school, and after surgery we asked how it had changed their behaviour with a lifestyle questionnaire. The school was launched in May 2016 and was attended by 586/1017 (58%) of invited patients. Patients who did not attend: lived further away, median (IQR [range]) 8 (4–19 [0–123]) miles vs. 5 (3–14 [0–172]) miles, p < 0.001; and were more deprived, Index of Multiple Deprivation Rank decile median (IQR [range]), 6 (4–8 [1–10]) vs. 7 (4–9 [1–10]), p = 0.04. Of the 492/586 (84%) participants who completed an evaluation questionnaire, 462 (94%) would recommend the school to a friend having surgery and 296 (60%) planned lifestyle changes. After surgery, 232/586 (40%) completed a behavioural change questionnaire, 106 (46%) of whom reported changing at least one lifestyle factor, most commonly by increasing exercise. The pre-operative school was acceptable to patients.     

Evidence-based strategies to reduce the incidence of postoperative delirium: a narrative review

Delirium is one of the most commonly occurring postoperative complications in older adults. It occurs due to the vulnerability of cerebral functioning to pathophysiological stressors. Identification of those at increased risk of developing delirium early in the surgical pathway provides an opportunity for modification of predisposing and precipitating risk factors and effective shared decision-making. No single delirium prediction tool is used widely in surgical settings. Multi-component interventions to prevent delirium involve structured risk factor modification supported by geriatrician input; these are clinically efficacious and cost effective. Barriers to the widespread implementation of such complex interventions exist, resulting in an ‘implementation gap’. There is a lack of evidence for pharmacological prophylaxis for the prevention of delirium. Current evidence suggests that avoidance of peri-operative benzodiazepines, careful titration of anaesthetic depth guided by processed electroencephalogram monitoring and treatment of pain are the most effective strategies to minimise the risk of delirium. Addressing postoperative delirium requires a collaborative, whole pathway approach, beginning with the early identification of those patients who are at risk. The research agenda should continue to examine the potential for pharmacological prophylaxis to prevent delirium while also addressing how successful models of delirium prevention can be translated from one setting to another, underpinned by implementation science methodology.     

Perioperative management of diabetes in patients undergoing bariatric and metabolic surgery: a narrative review and the Cleveland Clinic practical recommendations

Bariatric and metabolic surgery is an effective treatment for patients with severe obesity and obesity-related diseases. In patients with type 2 diabetes, it provides marked improvement in glycemic control and even remission of diabetes. In patients with type 1 diabetes, bariatric surgery may offer improvement in insulin sensitivity and other cardiometabolic risk factors, as well as amelioration of the mechanical complications of obesity. Because of these positive outcomes, there are increasing numbers of patients with diabetes who undergo bariatric surgical procedures each year. Prior to surgery, efforts should be made to optimize glycemic control. However, there is no need to delay or withhold bariatric surgery until a specific glycosylated hemoglobin target is reached. Instead, treatment should focus on avoidance of early postoperative hyperglycemia. In general, oral glucose-lowering medications and noninsulin injectables are not favored to control hyperglycemia in the inpatient setting. Hyperglycemia in the hospital is managed with insulin, aiming for perioperative blood glucose concentrations between 80 and 180 mg/dL. Following surgery, substantial changes of the antidiabetic medication regimens are common. Patients should have a clear understanding of the modifications made to their treatment and should be followed closely thereafter. In this review article, we describe practical recommendations for the perioperative management of diabetes in patients with type 2 or type 1 diabetes undergoing bariatric surgery. Specific recommendations are delineated based on the different treatments that are currently available for glycemic control, including oral glucose-lowering medications, noninsulin injectables, and a variety of insulin regimens.     

老年骨科大手术患者术前衰弱风险评估模型的构建与评价

目的探讨老年骨科大手术患者术前衰弱相关危险因素,构建风险评估模型,并预测其效能。方法选取拟行骨科大手术的老年患者384例,采用一般资料调查表、FRAIL衰弱量表、查尔斯共病评估表、运动耐量评估表、简版老年抑郁量表及微型营养评定简表进行调查,经二元Logistic回归分析确定风险评估模型,采用受试者工作特征曲线检验模型效果。结果骨科大手术老年患者术前衰弱发生率为50.5%;年龄≥80岁、记忆丧失与社会活动减少、营养不良、共病4个因素为骨科大手术老年患者术前衰弱的预测因素。模型的受试者工作特征曲线下面积为0.727,约登指数为0.422,灵敏度为0.722,特异度为0.700。结论骨科大手术老年患者衰弱发生率较高,高龄、记忆丧失与社会活动减少、营养不良及共病是术前衰弱的危险因素;模型预测效能较好,需进一步进行大样本的临床验证。     

Urological surgery in patients aged 80 years and older: A 30‐year retrospective clinical study

Objectives: To investigate changes in the management of cases over time, we undertook a retrospective analysis of urological surgeries carried out in patients aged 80 years and older in a single institution over the last 30 years. Methods: Between 1975 and 2004, 402 patients aged 80 years and older underwent 412 surgeries in our department. We reviewed the clinical records and analyzed changes in clinical data over time. We evaluated the observed comorbidities and postoperative complications in selected patients for whom complete clinical records were available. We then identified risk factors for postoperative complications by means of multiple logistic regression analysis. Results: The number of surgeries carried out in patients aged 80 years and older increased every 5 years. Over time, the number of endourological and laparoscopic surgeries increased. Of 255 patients, 225 (88.3%) had at least one comorbidity, and 51 patients had postoperative complications. The number of observed comorbidities, such as cardiovascular disorder, central nervous system disorder, and diabetes mellitus, increased over the most recent 10‐year period. However, there were no differences in postoperative complications over time. Male sex and open surgery were found to be independent risk factors for postoperative complications. Conclusions: Although elderly patients had various comorbidities, the postoperative morbidity rate was acceptable in our selected cases. This study may provide useful detailed information for patients 80 years and older who will undergo urological surgery.     

Frailty and sarcopenia do not predict adverse events in an elderly population undergoing non-complex primary elective surgery for degenerative conditions of the lumbar spine

Background Context

Sarcopenia measured by normalized total psoas area (NTPA) has been shown to predict mortality and adverse events (AEs) in numerous surgical populations. The relationship between sarcopenia and postoperative outcomes after surgery for degenerative spine disease (DSD) has not been investigated.

Perioperative morbidity and renal function in young and elderly patients undergoing elective nephron‐sparing surgery or radical nephrectomy for renal tumours larger than 4 cm

Study Type – Therapy (case series) Level of Evidence 4 What’s known on the subject? and What does the study add? The incidence of renal tumours is rising constantly. Patients in the 6th or 7th decade of life are mainly affected. Nephron‐sparing surgery (NSS) has become the gold standard for the treatment of patients presenting with renal tumors ≤4 cm and is recommended for cT1b lesions in experienced centers. Little is known about the functional outcome of elderly patients presenting with renal tumours larger than 4 cm and being treated by NSS in comparison to radical nephrectomy (RN). Here we could show that NSS can be performed safely with considerable perioperative morbidity and a better functional outcome according to renal function without lacking oncological control.

OBJECTIVE

To analyse renal function, perioperative morbidity and overall survival (OS) in patients aged <55 years compared with patients aged >65 years treated by radical nephrectomy (RN) or elective nephron‐sparing surgery (NSS) for renal tumours >4 cm.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From our database, we identified 829 patients with renal tumours >4 cm treated by either RN (n= 641) or NSS (n= 188) at our institution between 1981 and 2007. After excluding patients with imperative indication and metastases, we identified retrospectively 81 patients aged <55 years (young patients) and 85 patients aged >65 years (elderly patients) treated for renal tumours >4 cm. In all, 36 and 33 patients underwent NSS and 45 and 52 patients underwent RN in the young and elderly group, respectively. Preoperative and periodically postoperative serum creatinin values were used to estimate glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Chronic kidney disease (CKD) was defined as GFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m². Clinical characteristics, complications and renal function were compared between age groups and surgical approaches, and OS was estimated using the Kaplan–Meier method.

RESULTS

The median (range) tumour size in young patients was larger compared with that of elderly patients, i.e. 6 (4.2–14.0) cm vs 5 (4.2–16.0) cm, with P < 0.001 considered to be statistically significant. The complication rates did not differ between the age groups (P= 0.656) or between NSS and RN in young (P= 0.095) or elderly patients (P= 0.277). Chronic kidney disease after RN or NSS occurred in 31.1% and 15.5% for young patients, respectively and in 50.9% and 24.2% in elderly patients, respectively, until last available follow‐up which was obtained after a median (range) of 5.69 (0.1–19.2) years for young patients and 5.48 (0.8–18.1) years for elderly patients. Overall survival did not significantly differ between NSS vs RN in young (P= 0.655) and elderly patients (P= 0.058).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that performing NSS for tumours >4 cm when feasible in young and carefully selected elderly patients is more beneficial for maintaining long‐term renal function. Regardless of age, patients undergoing RN for renal tumours >4 cm developed more new onsets of CKD than patients treated by elective NSS. The complication rate did not differ between the age groups or between types of surgery.     

Strategies for the prevention of airway complications – a narrative review

Despite being infrequent, complications of airway management remain an important contributor to morbidity and mortality during anaesthesia and care of the critically ill. Developments in the last three decades have made anaesthesia safer, and this has been mirrored in the equipment and techniques available for airway management. Modern technology including novel oxygenation modalities, widespread availability of capnography, second‐generation supraglottic airway devices and videolaryngoscopy provide the tools to make airway management safer still. However, technology will only take safety so far, and non‐technical aspects of airway management are critically important for communication and decision making during airway crises, acknowledging a ‘cannot intubate, cannot oxygenate’ situation and transitioning to emergency front of neck airway. Randomised controlled trials provide little useful information about safety in this setting, and data from registries and databases are likely to be of more value. This narrative review focuses on recent evidence in this area.     

《甲状腺手术后血肿的处理：系统评价和多学科共识指南》的解读

甲状腺手术后血肿是甲状腺手术后罕见但可致命的并发症,应受到多医疗学科的关注。近期,来自困难气道协会（DAS）、英国内分泌和甲状腺外科医生协会（BAETS）和英国耳鼻咽喉头颈外科协会（ENT UK）共11名专家组成的工作组制定了《甲状腺手术后血肿的处理：系统评价和多学科共识指南》。指南涵盖监测、识别、甲状腺手术后急救箱、甲状腺手术后疑似血肿的管理、血肿清除、日间甲状腺手术、培训、术前沟通和知情同意、术后沟通及机构政策等,并强调多学科团队合作对于保证甲状腺手术患者围术期安全的重要性。虽然该指南是专为甲状腺手术制定,但很多原则也可能适用于头颈部其他类型的手术。甲状腺手术后血肿的紧急决策和处理,需要麻醉科医师的深度参与。麻醉科医师在甲状腺手术后血肿的处理中担任重要角色,故应合理决策,重视氧和,为改善患者预后做出应有的努力。     

PROSPECT guideline for oncological breast surgery: a systematic review and procedure-specific postoperative pain management recommendations

Analgesic protocols used to treat pain after breast surgery vary significantly. The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the available literature on this topic and develop recommendations for optimal pain management after oncological breast surgery. A systematic review using preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis guidance with procedure-specific postoperative pain management (PROSPECT) methodology was undertaken. Randomised controlled trials assessing postoperative pain using analgesic, anaesthetic or surgical interventions were identified. Seven hundred and forty-nine studies were found, of which 53 randomised controlled trials and nine meta-analyses met the inclusion criteria and were included in this review. Quantitative analysis suggests that dexamethasone and gabapentin reduced postoperative pain. The use of paravertebral blocks also reduced postoperative pain scores, analgesia consumption and the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Intra-operative opioid requirements were documented to be lower when a pectoral nerves block was performed, which also reduced postoperative pain scores and opioid consumption. We recommend basic analgesics (i.e. paracetamol and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) administered pre-operatively or intra-operatively and continued postoperatively. In addition, pre-operative gabapentin and dexamethasone are also recommended. In major breast surgery, a regional anaesthetic technique such as paravertebral block or pectoral nerves block and/or local anaesthetic wound infiltration may be considered for additional pain relief. Paravertebral block may be continued postoperatively using catheter techniques. Opioids should be reserved as rescue analgesics in the postoperative period. Research is needed to evaluate the role of novel regional analgesic techniques such as erector spinae plane or retrolaminar plane blocks combined with basic analgesics in an enhanced recovery setting.