High selective expression of alpha7 nicotinic receptors on astrocytes in the brains of patients with sporadic Alzheimer's disease and patients carrying Swedish APP 670/671 mutation: a possible association with neuritic plaques

In the present study, we have investigated the expression of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on astrocytes and neurons in the hippocampus and temporal cortex of subjects carrying the Swedish amyloid precursor protein (APP) 670/671 mutation (APPswe), patients with sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD), and age-matched control subjects. Significant increases in the total numbers of astrocytes and of astrocytes expressing the alpha7 nAChR subunit, along with significant decreases in the levels of alpha7 and alpha4 nAChR subunits on neurons, were observed in the hippocampus and temporal cortex of both APPswe and sporadic AD brains. Both of these phenomena were more pronounced in APPswe than sporadic AD cases. Furthermore, the number of [(125)I]alpha-BTX binding sites (alpha7 nAChR) in the temporal cortex of the APPswe brain was significant lower than in the younger control group, reflecting the lower neuronal level of alpha7 nAChR. The increase in the level of expression of alpha7 nAChR on astrocytes was positively correlated with the extent of neuropathological alternations, especially the number of neuritic plaques, in the AD brain. The elevated expression of alpha7 nAChR on astrocytes might participate in Abeta cascade and formation of neuritic plaques, thereby playing an important role in the pathogenesis of AD.     

Selective changes in expression of different nicotinic receptor subtypes in brain and adrenal glands of mice carrying human mutated gene for APP or over-expressing human acetylcholinestrase

In this study, we investigated regulatory mechanisms and plasticity of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the brain and adrenal glands of two transgenic mice models over-expressing human beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP(SWE)Tg) and human AChE enzyme (hAChE-Tg), respectively. All animals were studied at 3 months of age. Binding studies showed higher (125)I-alpha-bungarotoxin (alpha7 nAChRs) and (3)H-epibatidine (alpha3 and alpha4 nAChRs) binding in the brain cortex and adrenal glands of hAChE-Tg mice compared to control mice. The APP(SWE)Tg mice showed a significantly lower relative level for the alpha4 mRNA in the brain cortex as well as a lower level of alpha3 mRNA, and higher level of alpha7 mRNA in the adrenal glands compared to control mice. A higher relative mRNA level of alpha3 and alpha4 nAChRs was observed in the brain as well as of alpha3 and alpha7 nAChRs in the adrenal glands of hAChE-Tg mice compared to control mice. Different nicotinic receptor plasticity is revealed in the brain cortex and adrenal glands in two transgenic mice models with different underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. Deposition of beta-amyloid (Abeta) may impair neurotransmitter activity in brain as well as in the adrenal gland.     

The regulation of hippocampal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) after a protracted treatment with selective or nonselective nAChR agonists

In rats, 1 mg/kg twice daily for 10 d of nicotine, a nonselective agonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), fails to change alpha4 and beta2 nAChR subunit mRNA but significantly decreased alpha7 nAChR subunit mRNA and protein expression, which is associated with a 35-40% decrease in the number of 125I-alpha-Bgtx binding sites in hippocampus. In addition, this schedule of nicotine treatment produced a 40% increase in the number of high- (K(D) 1 nM), but decreased by 25% the number of low-affinity (K(D) 30 nM) binding sites for 3H-epibatidine in hippocampus. In contrast, repeated treatment with lobeline (2.7 mg/kg twice daily for 10 d), which selectively binds to high-affinity binding nAChRs, fails to change the expression of high- or low-affinity nAChRs. These data suggest that a simultaneous upregulation of high-affinity nAChRs and downregulation of low-affinity nAChRs is elicited by ligands that can bind to both low- and high-affinity nAChRs, but not by selective agonists of high-affinity nAChRs. One might infer that in hippocampus, high- and low-affinity nAChRs may be located in the same cells. When these two receptor types are stimulated simultaneously by nonselective ligands for high- and low-affinity nAChRs, they interact, bringing about an increase in binding site density of the high-affinity nAChRs.     

Localization of nAChR subunit mRNAs in the brain of Macaca mulatta

We present here a systematic mapping of nAChR subunit mRNAs in Macaca mulatta brain. A fragment, from the transmembrane segments MIII to MIV of Macaca neuronal nAChR subunits was cloned, and shown to exhibit high identity (around 95%) to the corresponding human subunits. Then, specific oligodeoxynucleotides were synthesized for in situ hybridization experiments. Both alpha4 and beta2 mRNA signals were widely distributed in the brain, being stronger in the thalamus and in the dopaminergic cells of the mesencephalon. Most brain nuclei displayed both alpha4 and beta2 signals with the exception of some basal ganglia regions and the reticular thalamic nucleus which were devoid of alpha4 signal. alpha6 and beta3 mRNA signals were selectively concentrated in the substantia nigra and the medial habenula. The strongest signals for alpha3 or beta4 mRNAs were found in the epithalamus (medial habenula and pineal gland), whereas there were no specific alpha3 or beta4 signals in mesencephalic dopaminergic nuclei. alpha5 and alpha7 mRNA signals were found in several brain areas, including cerebral cortex, thalamus and substantia nigra, although at a lower level than alpha4 and beta2. The distribution of alpha3, alpha4, alpha5, alpha6, alpha7, beta2, beta3 and beta4 subunit mRNAs in the monkey is substantially similar to that observed in rodent brain. Surprisingly, alpha2 mRNA signal was largely distributed in the Macaca brain, at levels comparable with those of alpha4 and beta2. This observation represents the main difference between rodent and Macaca subunit mRNA distribution and suggests that, besides alpha4beta2*, alpha2beta2* nAChRs constitute a main nAChR isoform in primate brain.     

Changes of GABA(A) receptor binding and subunit mRNA level in rat brain by infusion of NOS inhibitor

In the present study, we have investigated the effects of prolonged inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) by infusion of NOS inhibitor, L-nitroarginine, to examine the pentobarbital-induced sleep, modulation of GABA(A) receptor binding, and GABA(A) receptor subunit mRNA level in rat brain. Pre-treatment with L-nitroarginine 30 min before pentobarbital treatment (60 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly increased the duration of sleep in rats. However, the duration of pentobarbital-induced sleep was shortened by the prolonged infusion of L-nitroarginine into ventricle. We have investigated the effect of NOS inhibitor on GABA(A) receptor binding characteristics in discrete areas of brain regions by using autoradiographic and in situ hybridization techniques. Rats were infused with L-nitroarginine (10, 100 pmol/10 microl/h, i.c.v.) for 7 days, through pre-implanted cannula by osmotic minipumps. The levels of [(3)H]muscimol and [(3)H]flunitrazepam binding were markedly elevated in almost all of brain regions including cortex, caudate putamen, thalamus, hippocampus, and cerebellum. However, there was no change in the level of [(35)S]TBPS binding. The levels of beta2-subunit were elevated in the cortex, brainstem, and cerebellar granule layers. By contrast, the levels of beta3-subunit were significantly decreased in the cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellar granule layers in L-nitroarginine-infused rats. Following L-nitroarginine treatment, the levels of alpha6- and delta-subunits which were strictly localized to the cerebellum, were not changed in the cerebellar granule layer. These results show that the prolonged inhibition of NOS by L-nitroarginine-infusion markedly elevates [(3)H]muscimol and [(3)H]flunitrazepam binding throughout the brain, and alters GABA(A) receptor subunit mRNA levels in different directions. Chronic inhibition of NO generation has differential effects on the various expressions of GABA(A) receptor subunits. These suggest the involvement of different regulatory mechanisms for the NO-induced expression of GABA(A) receptor.     

Effects of donepezil treatment on rat nicotinic acetylcholine receptor levels in vivo and in vitro

Research on acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) indicates that long term exposure increases the level of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) but the effects of donepezil on nAChRs are not well studied. Therefore, we investigated the effects of sub-chronic donepezil administration on nAChRs in rats and rat pheochromocytoma PC-12 cells. Male Sprague Dawley rats were administered donepezil (0.7 and 2.4 micromoles/kg), nicotine (2.5 micromoles/kg) or saline subcutaneously twice daily for 14 days, PC-12 cells were incubated with 10(-6) to 10(-4) M donepezil for 72 hours and nAChR levels were determined by receptor binding assay using the nAChR ligands [3H]-epibatidine (EPI) for non-alpha 7 nAChRs and [3H]-methyllyconitine (MLA) for alpha 7 nAChRs. Chronic donepezil administration at 1.4 micromoles/kg/day and 4.8 micromoles/ kg/day significantly increased [3H]-epibatidine binding in the cortex to 126 +/- 1.3% and 127 +/- 3.2% of the saline control animals, respectively. [3H]-MLA binding in the cortex increased to 114 +/- 4.4% and 124 +/- 2.8% of the control group for the high and low dose groups, respectively. Hippocampal [3H]-EPI binding in the low dose and high dose groups significantly increased to 135 +/- 3.6% and 125 +/- 4.6% of the controls, respectively while there were no changes in the level of [3H]-MLA binding. In striatal homogenates, neither [3H]-EPI nor [3H]-MLA binding were significantly effected at either dose of donepezil. In PC-12 cells, [3H]-EPI binding was increased at the non-physiological 10(-4)M concentration only. There was no effect of donepezil on [3H]-MLA binding at any concentration examined. These results indicate that donepezil increases cortical alpha 7 and non-alpha 7 nAChRs, hippocampal non-alpha 7 nAChRs but does not influence striatal nAChR levels. Furthermore, the lack of an effect on the alpha 7-nAChRs in PC-12 cells suggests that the increase in cortical alpha 7 nAChRs may be an indirect effect of increased acetylcholine levels in vivo.     

Alzheimer's disease: specific increases in a G protein subunit (Gs alpha) mRNA in hippocampal and cortical neurons.

The GTP binding protein, Gs, activates adenyl cyclase in direct response to stimulation of several neurotransmitter receptors. In situ hybridization histochemistry (ISHH) with a 35S-labelled oligonucleotide has been used to detect the mRNA encoding the alpha subunit of Gs (Gs alpha) in human hippocampus, temporal and visual cortices and cerebellum, and its level has been compared between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and control brains. A marked regional increase was found in the hippocampus of AD cases. Analysis of levels of Gs alpha mRNA in individual constituent pyramidal cells confirmed this increase (3 to 4-fold in densitometric units) in hippocampal fields CA1, CA3 and CA4, as well as in temporal cortex. Levels of Gs alpha mRNA were also determined relative to total poly(A)+ mRNA in the same cell populations in each case. Gene-specific elevation of Gs alpha mRNA was thereby confirmed in hippocampal fields, and also in temporal cortex. No changes were seen in visual cortex. The increase in Gs alpha mRNA may represent a response by AD neurons in affected areas to receptor alterations, or to an abnormality in receptor-G protein coupling. Alternatively, altered G protein gene expression might be a pathogenic event underlying changes in linked receptor populations.     

Reduced expression of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors during the early stages of damage by oxidative stress in PC12 cells.

The mechanism for a large loss of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in brains with neurodegenerative diseases remains unclear. Based on our previous results of [(3)H]epibatidine binding influenced by lipid peroxidation, we suggest that nAChR deficit in neurodegenerative diseases might be related to the neurons attacked by free radicals. To further understand how free radicals influence the expression of nAChRs, we detected [(125)I]alpha-bungarotoxin binding, nAChR subunit protein and mRNA during the early stage of damage by oxidative stress in PC12 cells in the present study. The results showed that free radical insult (FeSO(4)) within the concentration range (1 -100 microM) used in the study induced dose-dependent increases in lipid peroxidation and toxicity to PC12 cells, but did not result in apoptosis or necrosis. Significant reductions in [(125)I]alpha-bungarotoxin binding site, protein level for the alpha3 and alpha7 subunits, and mRNA level for the alpha7 subunit were observed in PC12 cells treated by FeSO(4) at the concentrations without inducing cell death compared to control. Pretreatment of cultural cells with antioxidant such as Vitamin E and reduced glutathione prevented the inhibiting effect of free radicals on [(125)I]alpha-bungarotoxin and [(3)H]epibatidine bindings. The present results further demonstrate that oxidative stress might reduce the number of [(125)I]alpha-bungarotoxin binding site and selectively suppress the expression of the nAChR subunits at protein and mRNA levels during the early stages of damage in PC12 cells.     

In vitro pharmacological characterization of (+/-)-4-[2-(1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinyl)ethyl]thio]phenol hydrochloride (SIB-1553A), a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor ligand

SIB-1553A ((+/-)-4-[2-(1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinyl)ethyl]thio]phenol HCl) is a neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) ligand which displaced the binding of [3H]nicotine (NIC) to the rat brain nAChRs with an IC(50) value of 110 nM with no appreciable affinity to the alpha7 nAhRs. SIB-1553A showed modest affinity for histaminergic (H3) and serotonergic (5-HT1 and 5-HT2) receptors, and sigma binding sites. In calcium flux assays, SIB-1553A (0.1-5 microM), in contrast to nicotine, showed a greater selectivity for beta4-subunit containing recombinant hnAChRs (alpha2beta4, alpha3beta4 and alpha4beta4) vs. beta2-subunit containing nAChRs (alpha4beta2 and alpha3beta2) both in terms of efficacy and potency. While NIC (10-30 microM) and epibatidine (0.01-0.1 microM) fully activated human muscle-type AChRs expressed by RD cell line, SIB-1553A was virtually ineffective for up to >100 microM and elicited less than 10% of the response due to suberyldicholine. SIB-1553A (< or =30 microM) evoked [3H]DA release from striatum, olfactory tubercles and prefrontal cortex (PFC), and [3H]NE release from hippocampus and PFC, and this evoked release was sensitive to mecamylamine (MEC). SIB-1553A-evoked neurotransmitter release exhibited region- and transmitter-specific antagonism by dehydro-beta-erythroidine (DHbetaE). SIB-1553A was less efficacious than NIC at evoking [3H]NE from the rat hippocampus and antagonized NIC response upon co-application implying partial agonist properties. SIB-1553A did not evoke basal [3H]ACh release from the rat striatum or hippocampus, but attenuated NMDA-evoked [3H]ACh release from the rat striatum. SIB-1553A did not inhibit rat brain cholinesterase for up to 1 mM. Multiple receptor affinities and release of several neurotransmitters may underlie the cognitive-enhancing effects of SIB-1553A documented in rodent and primate models.     

Chronic neonatal nicotine upregulates heteromeric nicotinic acetylcholine receptor binding without change in subunit mRNA expression

Smoking during pregnancy chronically exposes the fetus to nicotine resulting in long-term behavioral and cognitive deficits. Nicotine binds to neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), pentameric ligand-gated ion channels widely expressed in the nervous system. Chronic nicotine upregulates high-affinity nAChRs in animals and smokers. Here we determined if chronic nicotine treatment during a developmental period corresponding to the human third trimester regulates nAChR expression. Rat pups were intubated orally three times per day with or without nicotine (6 mg/kg/day) from postnatal day 1 to 8. Subunit mRNA expression was assessed by in situ hybridization. Expression of heteromeric and homomeric nAChR receptor was evaluated by autoradiography using (125)I-epibatidine and (125)I-alphabungarotoxin, respectively. nAChR expression was analyzed in cortex, hippocampus, thalamus and medial habenula from autoradiograms using computer assisted image analysis. Nicotine induced significant upregulation of heteromeric but not homomeric nAChRs in hippocampus, cortex and thalamus without changes in subunit mRNA expression. No effect of chronic nicotine on receptor expression was detected in the medial habenula, suggesting that nicotine's effect was mainly on alpha4beta2-type heteromeric nAChRs. The nicotine-induced upregulation was reversed after nicotine withdrawal. Receptor blockade by DHbetaE, an antagonist for heteromeric alpha4/beta2 nAChRs, did not prevent upregulation but increased expression to a similar degree as nicotine. Combination of both drugs had a cumulative effect. Thus, although transient, intermittent nicotine exposure as seen in smoking mothers is sufficient to upregulate heteromeric nAChRs during a critical period of brain development and could contribute to the behavioral deficits found in children whose mother smoked.