miR-7-5p和miR-152-3p联合调控Wnt/β-catenin通路对乳腺癌细胞上皮-间质转化及化疗耐药的影响

目的探讨miR-7-5p和miR-152-3p协同抑制乳腺癌细胞上皮-间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT)进程及紫杉醇耐药的分子机制。方法采用生物信息学软件预测miR-7-5p和miR-152-3p的靶基因,双荧光素酶报告基因检测两者与TCF4的靶向关系;Western blot法检测各组细胞中Wnt/β-catenin信号通路关键调控因子β-catenin及TCF4蛋白的表达;在转染miR-7-5p mimics和miR-152-3p mimics基础上给予Wnt/β-catenin通路激活剂LiCl处理后,Western blot法检测MCF-7/TAX细胞中β-catenin、TCF4和EMT相关蛋白(E-cadherin、vimentin)的表达,Transwell小室实验检测MCF-7/TAX细胞侵袭和迁移能力;MTT实验检测激活Wnt/β-catenin信号通路对MCF-7/TAX细胞紫杉醇耐药性的影响。结果 TCF4 3′UTR区域存在能够与miR-7-5p及miR-152-3p互补的结合位点;转染miR-7-5p mimics和miR-152-3p mimics后可使TCF4野生型(TCF4-WT)报告基因载体的荧光素酶活性较NC组明显降低(P0.05)。Western blot结果显示,与NC组相比,转染miR-7-5p mimics和miR-152-3p mimics后各组紫杉醇耐药MCF-7/TAX细胞中β-catenin和TCF4蛋白的表达水平明显降低(P0.05),且两者共同转染后MCF-7/TAX细胞中β-catenin和TCF4蛋白的表达水平较miR-7-5p组或miR-152-3p组进一步降低(P0.05)。Western blot结果显示,LiCl处理后MCF-7/TAX细胞中β-catenin、TCF4和vimentin蛋白表达水平明显升高,而E-cadherin蛋白表达水平明显降低(P0.05)。Transwell小室结果显示,LiCl处理后MCF-7/TAX细胞侵袭和迁移能力明显增强(P0.05)。MTT结果显示,不同浓度紫杉醇作用下,miR-7-5p+LiCl组细胞增殖活力较miR-7-5p组明显升高;同时miR-152-3p+LiCl组和miR-7-5p/152-3p+LiCl组细胞的增殖活力较NC组均明显升高(P0.05)。结论 TCF4是miR-7-5p和miR-152-3p的共同靶标。miR-7-5p和miR-152-3p可共同抑制MCF-7/TAX细胞中Wnt/β-catenin信号通路的活化。     

miR-195-5p 靶向调控ELMO2 抑制IL-17 诱导的胃癌细胞AGS 侵袭和 迁移

目的:研究miR-195-5p调控吞噬细胞运动蛋白2(ELMO2)对白介素17(IL-17)诱导的胃癌细胞AGS侵袭和迁移的影响和机制。方法:以胃癌细胞AGS作为实验对象,转染miR-195-5p mimics,给予IL-17处理,qRT-PCR方法测定细胞中miR-195-5p表达;Transwell小室测定细胞侵袭和迁移能力;Western blot测定细胞中E-cadherin、Vimentin蛋白表达水平。生物信息学软件预测miR-195-5p的靶基因可能为ELMO2,双荧光素酶系统鉴定靶向关系。在胃癌细胞AGS中共转染miR-195-5p mimics、pcDNA3.1-ELMO2,检测细胞侵袭和迁移能力变化。结果:IL-17处理后的胃癌细胞AGS中miR-195-5p表达水平下调,细胞侵袭和迁移能力升高,细胞中E-cadherin蛋白表达水平下降,Vimentin蛋白表达水平升高。转染miR-195-5p mimics后的细胞经过IL-17处理以后,细胞中miR-195-5p表达水平升高,细胞侵袭和迁移能力降低,细胞中E-cadherin蛋白表达水平升高,Vimentin蛋白表达水平降低。miR-195-5p靶向负调控ELMO2表达。pcDNA3.1-ELMO2能够提高转染miR-195-5p mimics后的细胞侵袭和迁移能力。结论:miR-195-5p靶向负调控ELMO2抑制IL-17诱导的胃癌细胞AGS侵袭和迁移。     

mi R-34a-3p抑制胰腺癌细胞增殖和侵袭转移并下调Smad2/TGF-β信号通路

目的 探讨miR-34a-3p对胰腺癌细胞的作用及可能机制。方法 RT-qPCR方法检测miR-34a-3p在人胰腺导管腺癌细胞SW1990和胰腺导管上皮细胞HPDE中的表达情况;转染miR-34a-3p mimics后,采用CCK-8法检测细胞增殖;Transwell小室实验检测细胞侵袭情况;Western blot检测细胞上皮-间质转化情况;进一步用生物信息学预测miR-34a-3p的下游靶基因,并用荧光素酶报告基因实验验证;然后采用Western blot检测靶蛋白以及靶蛋白下游调控蛋白的表达。结果 RT-qPCR检测发现miR-34a-3p在SW1990中的表达低于HPDE细胞。miR-34a-3p在SW1990细胞中过表达后,SW1990细胞增殖受到抑制、侵袭能力降低、E-cadherin表达上调、N-cadherin表达下调。生物信息学网站预测、双荧光素酶报告基因实验和Western blot证实Smad2是miR-34a-3p的靶蛋白,同时发现其下游蛋白TGF-β表达也显著下调。结论 miR-34-3p在胰腺癌细胞中的表达下调,miR-34-3p能够抑制胰腺癌细胞增殖、侵...     

miR-140-5p靶向调控HAND2影响TGF-β1诱导肾小管上皮细胞生长

目的探讨miR-140-5p调控心脏神经脊衍生物表达转录因子2(HAND2)对转化生长因子β1(TGF-β1诱导肾小管上皮细胞生长的影响。方法实验设置TGF-β1组、对照(NC)组、miR-NC组、miR-140-5p组、anti-miRNC组、anti-miR-140-5p组、miR-NC+TGF-β1组、miR-140-5p+TGF-β1组、si-NC+TGF-β1组、si-HAND2+TGF-β1组、miR-140-5p+pcDNA-NC+TGF-β1组、miR-140-5p+pcDNA-HAND2+TGF-β1组。实时荧光定量PCR(RT-qPCR)检测miR-140-5p和HAND2 mRNA表达水平;蛋白质印迹(Western blot)法检测HAND2、细胞周期蛋白D1(CyclinD1)、裂解的半胱氨酸天冬氨酸蛋白酶-3(Cleaved-caspase-3)、磷酸化磷脂酰肌醇3激酶(p-PI3K)、磷酸化蛋白激酶B(p-AKT)蛋白表达;四甲基偶氮唑盐比色法(MTT)检测细胞增殖率;流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡;双荧光素酶报告实验验证miR-140-5p和HAND2的靶向关系。结果 TGF-β1诱导的肾小管上皮细胞中miR-140-5p低表达,HAND2高表达。高表达miR-140-5p或低表达HAND2,TGF-β1诱导的肾小管上皮细胞中CyclinD1表达水平升高,Cleaved-caspase-3表达水平降低,细胞增殖率升高,细胞凋亡率降低(P0.05)。miR-140-5p靶向调控HAND2,高表达HAND2可以逆转miR-140-5p对TGF-β1处理的肾小管上皮细胞增殖和凋亡的影响。高表达miR-140-5p,p-PI3K、p-AKT表达水平升高;而高表达HAND2逆转了miR-140-5p对PI3K/AKT信号通路的促进作用。结论过表达miR-140-5p通过靶向下调HAND2激活PI3K/AKT信号通路促进肾小管上皮细胞增殖,抑制响TGF-β1诱导的肾小管上皮细胞凋亡。     

miR-508-5p慢病毒过表达载体构建及对MAPK1/ERK信号通路靶向抑制作用的研究

目的:构建能高效表达成熟miR-508-5p小分子的慢病毒过表达载体,研究其对MAPK1/ERK信号通路靶向调控作用。方法:利用化学合成miR-508-5p茎环结构RNA,并将其克隆入线性化的pSicoR质粒中,经双酶切及测序鉴定;同时构建与miR-508-5p互补靶基因MAPK1的3’非翻译区,将其克隆入线性化的Report载体中。利用脂质体转染试剂将鉴定阳性的pSicoR-miR-508-5p重组质粒转染HEK-293T细胞,进一步通过Relative luciferase activity、Western blot及real-time PCR试验检测MAPK1蛋白和mRNA相对表达水平。结果:酶切及测序结果证明成功构建pSicoR-miR-508-5p及Report-MAPK1 3’-UTR重组质粒,并通过实验证实miR-508-5p过表达明显抑制MAPK1的蛋白表达水平及mRNA相对含量(P<0.05);抑制miR-508-5p的表达,又明显上调MAPK1的蛋白表达水平及mRNA相对含量(P<0.05)。结论:成功构建pSicoR-miR-508-5p慢病毒过表达载体,证实miR-508-5p直接靶标MAPK1的表达,在转录后水平对其进行负调控,为进一步研究miRNA对细胞通路和细胞周期的调控作用奠定了基础。     

miR-508-5P慢病毒过表达载体的构建及对S期激酶相关蛋白2靶向调控作用

目的构建miR-508-5p慢病毒过表达载体,探讨其对SKP2基因的靶向调控作用。方法基于化学法合成miR-508-5p茎环结构RNA,将其克隆入线性化的pSicoR质粒中,经双酶切及测序鉴定,将阳性重组体转染至HEK293T细胞;同时构建与miR-508-5p互补靶基因SKP2的3'非翻译区(3'UTR),将其克隆入线性化的pMIR-Report载体中。通过相对荧光素酶活性、Western blot法及实时荧光定量PCR(qRT-PCR)法验证miR-508-5p与SKP2 3'UTR的靶向调控关系。结果经PCR、酶切及测序结果证明成功构建了pSicoR-miR-508-5p及pMIR-Report-SKP2-3'UTR重组质粒,并通过实验证实miR-508-5p过表达明显抑制SKP2的蛋白表达水平及mRNA相对含量(P0.05);抑制miR-508-5p的表达,则明显上调SKP2的蛋白表达水平及mRNA相对含量(P0.05)。结论成功构建pSicoR-miR-508-5p慢病毒过表达载体,证实通过靶向作用于SKP2-3'UTR的特异序列直接抑制SKP2基因的表达。     

miR-142-3p 靶向ATG4c 调控RAW264.7 巨噬细胞自噬

目的:研究miR-142-3p 对自噬相关基因ATG4c 的靶向调控作用,探究miR-142-3p 影响RAW264.7 细胞自噬途径的作用机制。方法:生物信息学软件分析miR-142-3p 的靶基因为ATG4c,构建pMIR-Report-ATG4c 和pMIR-Report-ATG4c mut 重组质粒,双荧光素酶报告系统、qRT-PCR、Western blot 验证miR-142-3p 与ATG4c 的靶向作用;将做不同处理的RAW264.7 细胞分为4 组:正常细胞作为对照、50 ng/ ml 雷帕霉素作用2 h、EBSS 饥饿作用12 h、10 nmol/ L 的3-甲基腺嘌呤(3-MA)作用12 h 后,实时荧光定量PCR(qRT-PCR)检测miR-142-3p 不同干预组中的相对表达情况;将miR-142-3p mimics、miR- 142-3p inhibitor 及miR-142-3p control 分别转染到RAW264.7 细胞中,检测miR-142-3p 和LC3域的相对表达。结果:双荧光素酶报告系统、qRT-PCR、Western blot 验证miR-142-3p 通过靶向作用于ATG4c 的3忆-UTR 抑制其表达;与对照组相比,雷帕霉素和饥饿处理的RAW264.7 细胞miR-142-3p 明显上调,而3-MA 处理组miR-142-3p 明显下调;与miR-142-3p control 组相比,转染miR-142-3p mimics 组中LC3域蛋白表达显著下调,而miR-142-3p inhibitor 组中表达显著上调。结论:miR-142-3p 通过靶向调控自噬相关基因ATG4c,参与RAW264.7 小鼠巨噬细胞自噬的调控。     

miR-129-5p靶向调控VCP抑制骨肉瘤细胞体外迁徙侵袭

目的 探讨miR-129-5p是否靶向调控VCP基因抑制骨肉瘤细胞迁徙侵袭.方法 构建miR-129-5p过表达及低表达的慢病毒载体,转染骨肉瘤细胞U2-OS;采用实时荧光定量PCR检测上调及下调miR-129-5p的U2-OS细胞中miR-129-5p的表达量;采用RT-PCR和Western blot技术检测VCP mRNA和蛋白表达;采用划痕实验和Transwell侵袭实验检测细胞迁徙、侵袭情况.结果 实时荧光定量PCR结果显示U2-OS细胞中miR-129-5p表达被明显上调或下调;RT-PCR和Western blot检测结果显示:miR-129-5p上调U2-OS细胞组中VCP mRNA和蛋白表达水平显著低于阴性对照细胞组(阴性慢病毒转染);miR-129-5p下调U2-OS细胞组中VCP mRNA和蛋白表达水平显著高于阴性对照细胞组;miR-129-5p上调U2-OS细胞迁徙和侵袭力显著低于阴性对照细胞,miR-129-5p下调的U2-OS细胞迁徙和侵袭力显著高于阴性对照细胞.结论 miR-129-5p靶向调控VCP的表达而抑制骨肉瘤细胞迁徙和侵袭能力.     

miR-99a-5p通过靶向mTOR抑制前列腺癌细胞增殖及肿瘤生长

目的 探讨miR-99a-5p靶向mTOR对前列腺癌细胞增殖及肿瘤生长的影响。方法 CCK-8法检测miR-99a-5p对DU-145细胞增殖的影响;miR-99a-5p mimics转染前列腺癌DU-145细胞,通过实时定量PCR检测miR-99a-5p和mTOR mRNA表达,Western blot检测miR-99a-5p过表达后DU-145细胞mTOR蛋白的表达;通过生物信息学网站预测mTOR是否为miR-99a-5p潜在的靶基因,并通过双荧光素酶报告基因实验进行验证,CCK-8和肿瘤异种移植裸鼠模型验证miR-99a-5p通过靶向mTOR对前列腺癌细胞增殖及肿瘤生长的影响。结果 转染miR-99a-5p mimics抑制DU-145细胞体外增殖活性,降低mTOR mRNA和蛋白的表达,miR-99a-5p结合mTOR mRNA 3’UTR区域,且miR-99a-5p通过靶向mTOR抑制前列腺癌细胞增殖及肿瘤生长。结论 miR-99a-5p通过靶向调控mTOR抑制前列腺癌细胞的增殖及肿瘤生长。     

miR-1468-3p靶向JAK2调控乳腺癌细胞的凋亡

目的探讨miR-1468-3p分子通过Janus激酶2(JAK2)蛋白调控乳腺癌细胞的凋亡。方法运用TargetScan在线分析miR-1468-3p与JAK2的相关性;将JAK2的3′UTR构建进PmirGLO质粒,利用luciferase assay检测miR-1468-3p是否靶向调控JAK2;用脂质体梯度转染miR-1468-3P mimics或miR-1468-3P inhibitor转入乳腺癌MCF7细胞,通过Western blot检测JAK2的表达量和乳腺癌MCF7细胞凋亡标志蛋白表达情况。结果通过TargetScan分析,miR-1468-3p在3个区域与JAK2具有较高匹配度;通过luciferase assay发现,miR-1468-3p靶向JAK2的3′UTR;梯度转染miR-1468-3P mimics时,JAK2的表达量梯度下降,细胞凋亡标志蛋白cleaved-caspase3/caspase3、cleaved-caspase9/caspase9、BAX表达量上升,Bcl-2表达量下降(P<0.05);而用梯度转染miR-1468-3P inhibitor进乳腺癌MCF7细胞时,JAK2的表达量梯度上升,cleaved-caspase3/caspase3、cleaved-caspase9/caspase9和BAX表达量下降,Bcl-2表达量上升(P<0.05)。结论 miR-1468-3p能通过降低JAK2的表达来促进乳腺癌MCF7细胞的凋亡。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

The universal muscular chamber. A basic unit of the genitourinary, cardiovascular, gastro-intestinal, skeletal, cutaneous, respiratory and other systems, endocameral hypertension; and spasm, the key to their idiopathic diseases and arthropathies

Starting with the integument, we see many organs are contractile sacs or multiples thereof, which tubes or bags constitute the major part of the entire body. Recognition of this basic unit and its characteristics sheds new light, individually and collectively, on many disorders previously considered unrelated. Muscular tears and perforations develop in the walls of these chambers, being no way peculiar to those organs, wherein, hydrochloric acid occurs. So, it is not necessary to explain the absence of excessive acid from patients who exhibit holes in the gastric, uterine, aortic, duodenal, rectal, pulmonary, retina, and other walls. Muscle, not acid is the great common factor relating idiopathic disorders in the gastrointestinal tract to each other and to similar diseases in other systems. When the units are linked together, the lesions tend to appear as arthropathies, i.e. at the joints. Rephrasing common-place observations, frees us from conventional, conceptual cul-de-sacs. An observation is only as good as its interpretation, so all possibilities must be considered, otherwise, we will remain blinded by our misconceptions.