MG132对肿瘤恶病质小鼠骨骼肌消耗及TRAF6表达的影响

 目的 探讨蛋白酶体抑制剂MGl32对肿瘤恶病质骨骼肌消耗和TRAF6及其所调节的自噬溶酶体途径和泛素蛋白酶体途径相关因子Beclin-1、MuRF1和MAFbx基因表达的影响。方法 小鼠结肠腺癌C26细胞接种BALB/c小鼠诱导肿瘤恶病质模型。分为对照组（HC）、恶病质组（CC）和MG132治疗组（MG）。监测体质量和自发性活动,于接种后第12天,每天腹腔注射给予MG组小鼠0.1mg/kg的MG132,HC和CC组小鼠给予等量生理盐水,第19天处死小鼠。称量肿瘤、左侧腓肠肌重量,检测腓肠肌横切面积,RT-PCR和Western blot 检测TRAF6、Beclin1、MuRF1和MAFbx的mRNA和蛋白水平。结果 CC组小鼠去瘤体质量、自发性活动、腓肠肌重量和横切面积均显著低于HC组(P<0.05),MG组小鼠这次指标均显著回升(P<0.05),但仍低于HC组(P<0.05)。CC组小鼠腓肠肌组织TRAF6、Beclin1、MAFbx和MuRF1的mRNA和蛋白水平均显著高于HC组(P<0.05),MG组小鼠这次指标均显著低于CC组(P<0.05)。结论 MG132改善肿瘤恶病质骨骼肌消耗可能与抑制腓肠肌TRAF6的表达,阻断自噬溶酶体途径和泛素蛋白酶体途径有关。     

氯喹可加重Con A诱导的自身免疫性肝损伤

氯喹(chloroquine,CQ)可抑制免疫反应,偶用于类风湿性关节炎、系统性红斑狼疮等自身免疫性疾病的治疗,但氯喹对自身免疫性肝炎的影响目前尚不明确。本研究拟探讨CQ对小鼠自身免疫性肝损伤的影响及可能机制。小鼠尾静脉注射Con A建立小鼠肝损伤模型,1h后,腹腔注射CQ或等体积PBS。观察小鼠生存状况,在不同时间点收集血清和肝组织,采用赖氏法检测血清谷丙转氨酶(GPT)水平;ELISA方法检测血清细胞因子IFN-γ及TNF-α含量;HE染色观察肝脏病理损伤情况;免疫印迹检测小鼠肝脏自噬水平指标LC3-Ⅱ和P62。结果显示,Con A+CQ组小鼠血清中GPT水平显著高于Con A组,且病理切片染色显示Con A+CQ组肝脏损伤较Con A组更严重;Con A+CQ注射组小鼠的存活率明显低于仅注射Con A组(P0.0001);Con A+CQ组小鼠血清中炎性细胞因子IFN-γ和TNF-α的分泌高于Con A组;CQ可抑制Con A刺激诱导的小鼠肝脏自噬水平升高。氯喹可加重Con A诱导的自身免疫性肝损伤,其机制可能是通过抑制肝脏自噬水平从而加剧小鼠肝脏损伤。     

Wortmannin通过抑制癫痫大鼠海马自噬活性发挥神经保护作用

目的:探讨癫痫大鼠海马自噬活性的变化及自噬抑制剂wortmannin(WM)对致痫大鼠海马神经元的保护作用。方法:实验大鼠分为对照组、致痫2 h、8 h、16 h、24 h、72 h组和WM干预组。应用HE染色和Nissl染色观察癫痫大鼠海马神经元损伤的变化。免疫印迹检测海马组织微管相关蛋白1轻链3(LC3)Ⅱ/LC3Ⅰ的比值作为自噬活性的指标。结果:LC3Ⅱ/LC3Ⅰ比值在大鼠癫痫发作2 h时开始升高,24 h达到高峰,持续升高至少72 h。致痫24 h时海马CA1区出现明显神经元损伤和丢失。WM干预组CA1区存活神经元数目(100.88±18.73)显著高于癫痫组(70.16±5.09)(P0.05),LC3Ⅱ/LC3Ⅰ的比值低于癫痫组(P0.05)。结论:癫痫发作导致的海马损伤时存在自噬激活现象;WM通过抑制自噬活性减轻癫痫发作所致的海马损伤,具有神经保护作用。     

远程缺血后处理抑制心肺复苏后大鼠海马神经细胞自噬

目的:观察远程缺血后处理(RIPostC)对心肺复苏后(CPR)大鼠海马神经细胞自噬水平的影响。方法:45只雄性SD大鼠随机分为假手术组(sham组)、心脏停搏(CA)/CPR组和RIPostC组,每组15只。通过夹闭气管导管建立窒息性CA/CPR模型。在自主循环恢复(ROSC)后不同时点进行神经功能缺损评分(NDS),ROSC后24 h处死大鼠并取出海马组织,Western blot法检测海马神经细胞LC3-Ⅱ/LC3-Ⅰ和beclin-1蛋白的表达,TUNEL法检测细胞凋亡,免疫荧光观察LC3颗粒形成,透射电镜观察细胞自噬小体和线粒体的超微结构形态学变化。结果:与sham组相比,CA/CPR组NDS评分降低,LC3-Ⅱ/LC3-Ⅰ和beclin-1蛋白表达均升高(P0.05),神经细胞凋亡增多(P0.05);与CA/CPR组相比,RIPostC组的NDS评分升高,LC3-Ⅱ/LC3-Ⅰ和beclin-1表达下降(P0.05),神经细胞凋亡减少(P0.05),LC3颗粒形成减少,细胞内自噬小体减少,线粒体结构损伤减轻。结论:远程缺血后处理可改善心肺复苏后大鼠神经功能,这可能与抑制海马神经细胞过度自噬有关。     

奥美沙坦酯对慢性心力衰竭小鼠肾脏损伤的保护作用

目的: 探讨奥美沙坦酯对慢性心力衰竭小鼠肾脏损伤的影响。方法: 健康C57小鼠分为假手术组(sham组)、慢性心力衰竭组(CHF组)和奥美沙坦酯治疗组(OLM+CHF组)。以冠状动脉左前降支结扎法建立慢性心力衰竭小鼠模型,其中奥美沙坦酯治疗组以10 mg/kg剂量每天胃饲。12周时观察各组小鼠心率、血压、心功能状况、血肌酐、血尿素氮、血浆和肾脏血管紧张素Ⅱ水平;real-time PCR法检测肾脏肾素、血管紧张素1型受体(AT1R)和血管紧张素原(AGT)的表达情况,PAS染色观察肾组织结构变化。结果: 与shan组相比,CHF组和OLM+CHF组左室舒张末期内径(LVDd)和左室收缩末期内径(LVDs)显著增加(P＜0.05),短轴缩短率(FS)和射血分数(EF)显著降低(P＜0.05)。与sham组相比,CHF组收缩压、血肌酐和血尿素氮含量显著增高,OLM+CHF组以上指标较CHF组均显著降低(P＜0.05)。与sham组相比,CHF组血浆和肾脏血管紧张素Ⅱ水平增高,肾素、AT1R和AGT表达增高(P＜0.05),OLM+CHF组肾脏血管紧张素Ⅱ水平、肾素、AT1R和AGT表达较CHF组均显著降低(P＜0.05)。CHF组PAS染色可见肾小球系膜区扩张,肾小管间质PAS阳性染色物明显增多。OLM+CHF组肾小球系膜区和肾小管间质PAS染色阳性物质与CHF组相比明显减少。结论: 慢性心力衰竭可使肾内肾素血管紧张素系统激活并导致肾脏损伤,奥美沙坦酯通过抑制血管紧张素Ⅱ起到肾脏保护作用。     

大麻制剂HU210对实验性急性胰腺炎的干预作用及其与Toll样受体4信号通路的可能关系

目的:研究大麻类制剂HU210对雨蛙肽(caerulein,CAE)诱导的野生型(wild-type,WT)和Toll样受体4基因敲除(tlr4~(-/-))小鼠急性胰腺炎(acute pancreatitis,AP)的干预作用,并探讨其作用机制。方法:将成年C57BL/10J小鼠及相同背景的tlr4~(-/-)小鼠各随机分成3组:AP组、AP+HU210组及正常对照组。小鼠腹腔注射CAE(50μg·kg~(-1)·h~(-1))6次及脂多糖(10 mg/kg)1次复制AP模型;AP+HU210组在造模前及造模后各腹腔注射1次HU210(50μg/kg);对照组注射生理盐水替代CAE和脂多糖。造模处理后3 h,取血处死小鼠,取胰腺、肺组织及肠道Peyer’s结。结果:与对照组相比,无论在WT或tlr4~(-/-)小鼠,AP造模后胰腺病理评分,血浆淀粉酶活性,血浆IL-6、TNF-α及MCP-1水平,以及肺MPO活性均明显升高(P0.05),P38蛋白表达明显上调(P0.05)。同时,AP造模后,与WT小鼠相比,tlr4~(-/-)小鼠血浆IL-6、TNF-α及MCP-1水平,以及胰腺P38及p-P38蛋白表达均明显降低(P0.05),Peyer’s结CD3~+、CD4~+T淋巴细胞百分比及CD4~+/CD8~+比值明显降低(P0.05)。HU210干预使2种小鼠AP模型的胰腺病理学评分和肺MPO活性的升高明显得到改善(P0.05);在WT小鼠,而非tlr4~(-/-)小鼠,AP引起的血浆淀粉酶活性和胰腺P38及p-P38蛋白表达的变化在HU210干预后明显逆转(P0.05)。结论:TLR4主要参与AP全身炎症反应,其机制可能依赖TLR4-P38 MAPK信号通路;大麻制剂HU210对AP的干预主要通过抑制炎症细胞的浸润发挥组织保护作用,与TLR4信号通路的关系似乎不明显。     

清胰汤Ⅱ号冲剂对急性胰腺炎小鼠的保护作用及机制

目的:探讨清胰汤Ⅱ号冲剂(QYT)对急性胰腺炎(acute pancreatitis,AP)小鼠的保护作用及机制。方法:成年C57BL/6小鼠24只,雌雄各半,随机均分为3组。AP组和AP+QYT组首先经腹腔注射雨蛙肽(50μg/kg)及脂多糖(10 mg/kg)复制重症AP模型,AP组小鼠给予饮用水灌胃,AP+QYT组给予QYT灌胃;正常对照组小鼠给予等量生理盐水注射及饮用水灌胃。于末次注药后3 h麻醉处死动物。检测和分析胰腺组织的病理改变、肠道细菌总数和分类、Peyer’s结T淋巴细胞亚群的变化、血浆淀粉酶、白细胞介素6(IL-6)、单核细胞趋化蛋白1(MCP-1)水平以及胰腺和肺脏组织髓过氧化物酶(MPO)活性等。结果:与对照组相比,AP小鼠的胰腺组织病理学评分、肠道细菌数量、血浆淀粉酶活性、IL-6及MCP-1水平、胰和肺组织的MPO活性都有明显升高(P0.05);QYT可在一定程度上逆转AP时相关指标的变化(P0.05)。小肠Peyer’s结数量在各组无明显差异,但AP组的CD3+T淋巴细胞百分比较对照组明显降低(P0.05),而且,AP组和AP+QYT组,尤其是后者CD4+T淋巴细胞百分比和CD4+/CD8+比值较对照组明显升高(P0.05)。结论:清胰汤II号冲剂对雨蛙肽和脂多糖诱导的小鼠急性胰腺炎具有明显的拮抗作用,其机制可能与其抑制炎症反应、促进肠内细菌的清除和调节肠道T淋巴细胞功能有关。     

自噬水平变化对心脏骤停心肺复苏后大鼠海马神经元凋亡的影响

目的探讨自噬水平变化对心脏骤停心肺复苏(CA/CPR)后大鼠海马神经元凋亡的影响。方法将40只大鼠随机分为假手术组(sham)、CA/CPR模型组(model)、雷帕霉素(Rapa)组(CA/CPR+Rapa)及3-甲基腺嘌呤(3-MA)组(CA/CPR+3-MA)。采用呼气末夹闭气管窒息法复制大鼠CA/CPR动物模型,分别给予自噬激动剂Rapa 0.2 mg/kg及自噬抑制剂3-MA 10 mg/kg进行干预。采用神经功能缺陷评分(NDS)评价CA/CPR大鼠神经功能;用TUNEL染色法检测大鼠海马神经元的凋亡变化;用RT-PCR和Western blotting法检测大鼠海马内微管蛋白轻链3(LC3)、Beclin-1、Bax、Bcl-2及Caspase-3 mRNA和蛋白的表达水平。结果与假手术组比较,CA/CPR模型组大鼠NDS评分明显降低;海马神经元TUNEL染色阳性细胞数明显增多,凋亡率显著升高;海马内LC3、Beclin-1、Caspase-3、Bax表达上调,Bcl-2表达下调(P<0.05,P<0.01)。与模型组比较,CA/CPR+Rapa大鼠NDS评分明显降低,而海马神经元凋亡率明显有所增加,海马内LC3、Beclin-1、Caspase-3、Bax表达明显上调,而Bcl-2表达则明显有所下降;CA/CPR+3-MA大鼠NDS评分明显升高,而海马神经元凋亡率下降,海马内LC3、Beclin-1、Caspase-3、Bax表达明显下调,而Bcl-2表达则有所升高(P<0.05,P<0.01)。结论 CA/CPR后自噬水平升高促进海马神经元凋亡,自噬水平降低抑制海马神经凋亡,两者相互作用共同参与CA/CPR的病理过程。     

增强自噬减轻大鼠造影剂所致急性肾损伤的实验研究

目的 建立造影剂所致急性肾损伤(CI-AKI)大鼠模型,探讨自噬在CI-AKI中的作用及机制.方法 将18只雄性Sprague-Dawley大鼠随机分为对照组(Con组)、CI-AKI组和雷帕霉素+造影剂组(Rapa组).CI-AKI组腹腔注射超大剂量的碘海醇(12.25 g/kg I),Rapa组于碘海醇注射前1周连续腹腔注射雷帕霉素(5 mg/(kg·d)),Con组腹腔注射等剂量的生理盐水.注射后24 h观察大鼠血肌酐水平、肾组织病理、肾组织中LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ和Beclin-1表达水平及过氧化氢酶(CAT)含量的变化.结果 与Con组比较,CI-AKI组大鼠血肌酐水平明显升高((239.93±27.00) μmol/L比(51.70±10.59)μmol/L,P＜0.05),肾小管重度损伤,肾组织中自噬相关蛋白LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ和Beclin-1表达均增加(均P＜0.05),而CAT含量减少((14.86±0.32)U/mg比(18.72±1.46)U/mg),差异具有统计学意义(P＜0.05).与CI-AKI组比较,雷帕霉素预处理增加了肾组织中LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ和Beclin-1的表达及CAT含量((17.62±1.86)U/mg比(14.86±0.32)U/mg,P＜0.05),减轻了造影剂所致的肾小管损伤,并降低了血肌酐水平((187.62±47.76) μmol/L比(239.93±27.00) μmol/L),差异具有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 造影剂可诱导自噬激活,增强自噬可减轻造影剂所致氧化应激损伤及肾损伤.     

银莲花素A 对实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎小鼠自噬的调控作用及机制研究

目的:银莲花素A(RA)对实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎(EAE)小鼠自噬及p38MAPK通路的影响。方法:选取60只C57BL/6小鼠随机分为空白对照组、EAE模型组及RA低、中、高剂量组,每组12只,后4组建立EAE模型。RA低、中、高剂量组分别腹腔注射RA 0.05、0.1、0.2 mg/(kg·d),连续10 d,空白对照组及EAE模型组给予等量生理盐水。观察小鼠发病、脊髓组织脱髓鞘以及LC3、p-p38MAPK、p-mTOR、p-p70S6K蛋白表达情况。结果:空白对照组小鼠未发病,EAE模型组及RA各剂量组小鼠出现不同程度发病;与EAE模型组相比,RA各剂量组小鼠发病潜伏期延长、进展期缩短、神经功能评分降低,且剂量越大作用越明显(P0.05或P0.01)。空白对照组小鼠脊髓组织未见明显脱髓鞘,EAE模型组髓鞘脱失最明显,RA药物干预组脱髓鞘情况较轻,且随着剂量的增加,脱髓鞘的情况逐渐减轻。与空白组相比,EAE模型组LC3表达、LC3Ⅱ/LC3Ⅰ比值下降,p-p38MAPK、p-mTOR、p-p70S6K表达上升(P0.05或P0.01);与EAE模型组对比,RA各剂量组LC3表达、LC3Ⅱ/LC3Ⅰ比值上升,p-p38MAPK、p-mTOR、p-p70S6K表达下降,且剂量越大作用越明显(P0.05或P0.01)。结论:银莲花素A能改善EAE小鼠发病情况及脱髓鞘情况,且呈剂量依赖关系。其作用机制可能是通过调控p38MAPK通路,抑制mTOR磷酸化,上调LC3Ⅱ/LC3Ⅰ比值,诱导EAE小鼠细胞自噬有关。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.     

The universal muscular chamber. A basic unit of the genitourinary, cardiovascular, gastro-intestinal, skeletal, cutaneous, respiratory and other systems, endocameral hypertension; and spasm, the key to their idiopathic diseases and arthropathies

Starting with the integument, we see many organs are contractile sacs or multiples thereof, which tubes or bags constitute the major part of the entire body. Recognition of this basic unit and its characteristics sheds new light, individually and collectively, on many disorders previously considered unrelated. Muscular tears and perforations develop in the walls of these chambers, being no way peculiar to those organs, wherein, hydrochloric acid occurs. So, it is not necessary to explain the absence of excessive acid from patients who exhibit holes in the gastric, uterine, aortic, duodenal, rectal, pulmonary, retina, and other walls. Muscle, not acid is the great common factor relating idiopathic disorders in the gastrointestinal tract to each other and to similar diseases in other systems. When the units are linked together, the lesions tend to appear as arthropathies, i.e. at the joints. Rephrasing common-place observations, frees us from conventional, conceptual cul-de-sacs. An observation is only as good as its interpretation, so all possibilities must be considered, otherwise, we will remain blinded by our misconceptions.