人参皂苷Rb1改善自噬流抗离体大鼠心脏心肌缺血再灌注损伤

目的通过Langendorff系统构建离体大鼠心肌缺血/再灌注(I/R)损伤模型,探讨人参皂苷Rb1对心肌I/R损伤的保护作用及机制。方法选取健康成年雄性SD大鼠60只,随机分为假手术组、I/R组和人参皂苷Rb1(1、5、10和20μmol/L)预处理组,每组10只。大鼠开胸、结扎主动脉后,取出心脏置于Langendorff系统进行灌流,按照分组情况构建相应模型。采用Lab Chart电生理系统检测心率(HR)、左心室发展压(LVDP)、左室压上升/下降最大速率(±dp/dtmax)等相关心功能指标;采用TTC染色法检测心肌梗死面积;采用Western blotting检测Beclin 1、LC3、p62和Lamp 2表达情况;采用免疫组织化学法检测Beclin 1表达情况。结果人参皂苷Rb1(1、5、10和20μmol/L)改善由I/R损伤导致的LVDP和±dp/dtmax的下降,减少心肌梗死面积,其中10μmol/L浓度人参皂苷Rb1对心功能保护作用最显著(P<0.05)。Beclin 1在I/R组心肌细胞胞质中阳性表达率显著增高,加入人参皂苷Rb1(10μmol/L)后表达量减少(P<0.05)。与sham组相比,在I/R组发现自噬流受损:自噬相关蛋白Beclin 1、LC3和p62表达水平升高,Lamp 2表达水平下调(P<0.05)。加入人参皂苷Rb1(10μmol/L)后上述蛋白的调控作用被反转,自噬流通畅(P<0.05)。结论人参皂苷Rb1预处理通过改善自噬流受损发挥抗大鼠离体心肌I/R损伤的保护作用,其中以10μmol/L浓度的人参皂苷Rb1保护作用最好。     

抑制mTOR通路对局灶性脑缺血再灌注损伤大鼠自噬的影响

目的:应用哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin,m TOR)抑制剂Cystatin C,探讨其对局灶性脑缺血再灌注大鼠自噬的影响。方法:成年雄性SD大鼠60只(体质量260~280 g),随机分为假手术组(sham)、缺血再灌注组(I/R)、Cystatin C组(根据不同浓度分为低、中、高3个亚组Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ),每组12只。I/R组和Cystatin C组采用线栓法制备大鼠右侧脑缺血再灌注损伤模型。缺血2 h再灌注24 h,观察神经功能缺损评分、测定脑梗死体积;应用Western Blot技术检测损伤脑皮质中自噬标志物LC3-Ⅱ、LC3-Ⅰ和Beclin-1的变化。结果:与I/R组相比,Cystatin CⅠ、Ⅱ组大鼠神经功能缺损评分和脑梗死体积减少,而Cystatin CⅢ组大鼠神经功能缺损评分和脑梗死体积增大。I/R组脑皮质中自噬标志物LC3-Ⅱ/LC3-Ⅰ比值和Beclin-1表达明显升高(P0.05);Cystatin C各组脑皮质中LC3-Ⅱ/LC3-Ⅰ和Beclin-1的表达逐步升高,且与浓度呈正相关。结论:m TOR抑制剂Cystatin C干预脑缺血再灌注大鼠可诱导脑皮质组织自噬,Cystatin CⅠ、Ⅱ组可减轻脑组织损伤,而Cystatin CⅢ组则加重脑组织损伤。     

甘氨酰谷氨酰胺在大鼠离体心脏缺血/再灌注损伤中的保护作用研究

目的： 研究甘氨酰谷氨酰胺对缺血再灌注大鼠离体心脏的保护作用。方法：应用Langendorff离体心脏灌注系统建立心肌缺血再灌注模型。30只SD雄性大鼠随机分为正常对照组(control)、甘氨酰谷氨酰胺对照组(Gly-Gln)、缺血再灌注组(I/R)、缺血/再灌注+甘氨酰谷氨酰胺组(I/R+ Gly-Gln)。I/R组及I/R+ Gly-Gln组分别灌注30 min后,全心停灌20 min,再灌注40 min,I/R+ Gly-Gln组于再灌注时在灌流液中加入Gly-Gln;正常对照组连续灌流90 min,Gly-Gln对照组灌流液中加入Gly-Gln。记录各组灌注时,左室舒张末压(LVEDP)、左室发展压(LVDP)、左室压力最大变化速率(±dp/dtmax)、心率(HR)及心肌细胞单相动作电位(MAP);同时在相应的时点分别测定冠脉流出液中的乳酸脱氢酶（LDH)、肌酸激酶(CK)活性。结果：离体大鼠心脏缺血20min,再灌注40 min,导致严重的心功能抑制,表现为LVEDP升高,LVDP、±dp/dtmax降低;再灌注液中加入Gly-Gln后,LVEDP降低,LVDP、±dp/dtmax明显升高（P<0.01)。I/R+ Gly-Gln组冠脉流出液中LDH、CK活性明显低于I/R组(均P<0.01)。结论： Gly-Gln能有效减轻缺血再灌注引起的左室功能下降,减少心肌细胞LDH、CK的释出,表明Gly-Gln对缺血再灌注损伤的大鼠离体心脏具有保护作用。     

AMPK信号通路调控的自噬在七氟烷后处理保护大鼠心肌缺血再灌注损伤中的机制研究

研究七氟烷后处理对在体大鼠心肌缺血再灌注(I/R)损伤的保护作用,探讨腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶(AMPK)介导的自噬流在七氟烷后处理心肌保护中的作用。成年雄性SD大鼠50只,建立急性大鼠在体心肌I/R损伤模型。随机分为5组:假手术组(Sham组)、缺血再灌注组(I/R组)、七氟烷后处理组(SP组)、Compound c溶剂二甲基亚砜组(DMSO组)、AMPK抑制剂Compound c组(Com c组)。除Sham组,其余各组缺血30 min,再灌注4 h末。再灌注4 h末,提取心脏,采用氯化三苯基四氮唑染色法(TTC法)测定心肌梗死范围。采用免疫印迹法(Western blot技术)检测p-AMPK/t-AMPK、LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ及P62蛋白表达水平。与I/R组比较,SP组心肌梗死范围减小,p-AMPK/t-AMPK蛋白表达上调而LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ、P62蛋白表达下调(P0.05);与SP组比较,Com c组心肌梗死范围增加,p-AMPK/t-AMPK蛋白表达下调而LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ、P62蛋白表达上调(P0.05)。DMSO组相比于SP组差别无统计学意义(P0.05)。七氟烷后处理减轻了在体大鼠心肌I/R损伤,其机制可能是通过激活AMPK信号通路,减少再灌注期间自噬体的蓄积,保护自噬流进而发挥保护作用。     

缺血后适应对大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注所致自噬的抑制作用

目的:探讨缺血后适应对大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注所致自噬的影响。方法:取健康雄性SD大鼠30只,随机分为假手术(sham)组、缺血再灌注(I/R)组、缺血后适应(IPC)组,每组各10只。Sham组仅单纯暴露右侧颈总、颈内和颈外动脉;I/R组采用Longa改良线栓法制备大鼠右侧大脑中动脉缺血2 h、再灌注24 h模型;IPC组大鼠缺血2 h后,同侧颈总动脉再通10 s/闭塞10 s,循环5次,然后全面恢复血流再灌注24 h。采用透射电镜观察脑细胞自噬情况;Western blot法测定各组大鼠脑组织中哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(m TOR)、磷酸化m TOR(pm TOR)和微管相关蛋白轻链3(LC3)-Ⅱ的蛋白表达水平;TTC法检测脑梗死面积;干湿称重法测定脑组织含水量;HE染色观察脑组织病理学变化。结果:IPC组m TOR、p-m TOR均显著高于I/R组(P0.05),LC3-Ⅱ显著低于I/R组(P0.01)。IPC组脑梗死面积、脑组织含水量均显著低于I/R组(P0.01)。HE染色显示,IPC组神经元变性、坏死较I/R组明显减轻。透射电镜显示IPC组神经元损伤程度明显减轻,自噬泡明显减少。结论:IPC通过减少细胞内自噬而减轻脑缺血再灌注损伤,可能与增强m TOR作用有关。     

排斥性导向分子a抑制剂6FNⅢ对大鼠大脑皮质神经元缺血再灌注后自噬的作用

目的 探讨排斥性导向分子a(RGMa)特异性抑制剂6FNⅢ对大鼠大脑皮质神经元缺血再灌注引发的自噬及对神经功能恢复的影响。 方法 雄性成年SD大鼠立体定位侧脑室注射不同浓度6FNⅢ后建立大脑中动脉闭塞（MCAO）/再灌注模型,Western blotting检测RGMa下游分子脑衰反应调节蛋白-2（CRMP-2）蛋白表达水平,确定最佳6FNⅢ干预浓度。将72只雄性成年SD大鼠随机分成4组：假手术组（sham）、脑缺血再灌注组（I/R）、生理盐水干预组（I/R+NS）、6FNⅢ干预组（I/R+6FNⅢ）,每组18只。缺血2h再灌注后24h,采用神经功能缺损评分评估各组大鼠神经功能恢复情况;Western blotting检测自噬相关蛋白LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ水平;免疫荧光双标检测LC3在神经元内的表达情况;透射电子显微镜观察自噬体的形成情况。 结果 根据各浓度6FNⅢ干预组CRMP-2表达,确定中浓度（0.5 g/L）为本实验的最适浓度。缺血再灌注后24h,I/R组较sham组神经功能评分降低(P＜0.05)、自噬相关蛋白LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ水平升高(P＜0.05)、自噬体形成增多;I/R+6FNⅢ组较I/R组神经功能评分增高(P＜0.05)、自噬相关蛋白LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ水平降低(P＜0.05)、自噬体形成减少;而I/R+NS组与I/R组以上各项均无统计学意义(P＞0.05)。 结论 RGMa特异性抑制剂6FNⅡ可在缺血再灌注急性期抑制自噬发生,促进神经功能恢复。     

白藜芦醇通过Sirtuins 1通路促进自噬减轻大鼠脑缺血/再灌注损伤

目的观察白藜芦醇(Res)在大鼠局灶性脑缺血/再灌注(I/R)损伤中脑保护作用与自噬的关系。方法随机将大鼠分成假手术组(S组)、脑缺血/再灌注模型组(I/R组)、低和高剂量(15和40 mg/kg)Res处理组(R1和R2组),其中将R2组另设2个亚组:R2+3-甲基腺嘌呤(3-MA)组和R2+Sirt1抑制剂Sirtinol组。线栓法构建大鼠I/R模型。缺血2 h,再灌注24 h后,用尼氏染色观察皮质区的组织学形态;用2,3,5-氯化三苯基四氮唑(TTC)染色法检测脑组织的梗死体积;用real-time QPCR和Western blot检测脑组织中Sirt1和LC3的mRNA和蛋白表达。结果与S组相比,I/R组大鼠可见明显的脑梗死灶,显微镜下见病理损伤改变,自噬相关蛋白LC3Ⅱ/LC3Ⅰ、Sirt1表达均有上升。Res预处理后,能明显减轻I/R大鼠皮质区的病理损伤,减少脑梗死体积(P0.01),显著增加I/R大鼠脑组织中LC3Ⅱ/LC3Ⅰ和Sirt1的表达(P0.01);而Sirt1抑制剂及3-MA能削弱Res的作用。结论 Res减轻大鼠局灶性脑缺血/再灌注损伤的脑保护作用可能与Res通过提高Sirt1的表达进而促进自噬来完成的。     

依达拉奉对离体大鼠心肌缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用

目的:探讨依达拉奉(ED)预先给药对大鼠离体心肌缺血再灌注(I/R)损伤的作用及其机制。方法:制作Langendorff主动脉逆行灌注心脏I/R模型。24只雄性大鼠随机分为三组(n均=8):对照组(C组)、I/R组、ED组。观察各组大鼠I/R后心功能指标:左室收缩峰压(LVSP)、左室压上升最大速率(+dp/dtmax)、左室压下降最大速率(-dp/dtmax)、冠脉流量(CF)、心肌细胞乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)及肌酸激酶同工酶(CK-MB)活性、心肌组织丙二醛(MDA)含量和超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性。结果:与基础值和C组比较,I/R组再灌注时各时点的CF、LVSP、+dp/dtmax、-dp/dtmax降低(P<0.05);与I/R组比较,ED组再灌各时点的CF、LVSP、+dp/dtmax、-dp/dtmax增高(P<0.05);ED组心肌SOD活性明显高于I/R组(P<0.05),LDH及CK-MB活性、MDA含量低于I/R组(P<0.05)。结论:ED对I/R心肌有保护作用,能促进心功能恢复。其机制与清除自由基和减轻氧化应激有关。     

磷酸肌酸减少大鼠缺血再灌注心肌细胞凋亡及自噬泡的数量

目的 研究磷酸肌酸减少大鼠缺血再灌注心肌细胞凋亡及白噬的能力.方法 雄性SD大鼠24只,体质量200 ～ 250 g,随机均分为假手术(sham)组、缺血/再灌注(ischemia-reperfusion,I/R)组和磷酸肌酸钠(phosphocreatine,CP)干预组.其中CP组按4 mg/kg磷酸肌酸钠剂量于再灌注前经右股静脉注射.用TUNEL法检测心肌细胞凋亡;电子显微镜观察心肌细胞自噬泡的发生和线粒体的形态学改变;Western blot检测微管相关蛋白1轻链3-Ⅱ(LC3-Ⅱ)蛋白的表达.结果 I/R组与sham组相比,线粒体超微结构损伤加重,自噬泡数量增多(P＜0.01),心肌细胞凋亡率明显增加(P＜0.01);CP干预组可减轻I/R组线粒体超微结构损伤,自噬泡数量减少(P＜0.05),降低心肌细胞凋亡率(P ＜0.05);LC3-Ⅱ作为评价自噬强度的指标,I/R组与sham组相比,LC3-Ⅱ蛋白的表达明显上调(P＜0.01);而CP与I/R组相比,该蛋白表达明显下调(P＜0.05).结论 磷酸肌酸通过减少大鼠缺血再灌注心肌细胞凋亡及自噬泡的数量,从而减轻心肌缺血再灌注损伤.     

自噬对大鼠肾缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用及机制

目的：观察大鼠肾脏缺血再灌注( ischemia reperfusion, I/R)损伤中肾小管上皮细胞的自噬激活情况,探讨其对肾脏I/R损伤发挥保护性作用的分子机制。方法将40只雄性Wistar大鼠随机分为4组：假手术组( Sham)、I/R组、氯喹干预组( I/R+CQ)和雷帕霉素干预组( I/R+Rap)。常规方法建立大鼠肾脏I/R损伤模型,再灌注24 h后留取各组大鼠血和肾脏标本。血标本用于尿素氮( BUN)和血肌酐( Scre)含量检测;肾组织标本行HE染色,观察病理学损伤情况;TUNEL法检测肾小管上皮细胞凋亡的改变;采用免疫组化法检测Beclin-1和Caspase-3蛋白表达,透射电镜观察大鼠肾脏自噬泡的形成情况。结果与I/R组相比,I/R+CQ组BUN和Scre明显升高(P<0．05,P<0．01),肾组织损伤积分增加(P<0．01),TUNEL阳性细胞数增多(P<0．05),Beclin-1蛋白表达减弱(P<0．01),Caspase-3蛋白表达增强(P<0．01),电镜下自噬泡数量较少(P<0．05);I/R+Rap组BUN和Scre显著降低(P<0．01),肾组织损伤积分减低(P<0．05),TUNEL阳性细胞数减少(P<0．05),Beclin-1蛋白表达增强(P<0．01),Caspase-3蛋白表达减弱(P<0．01),自噬泡数量明显增多(P<0．01)。结论自噬激活在肾脏I/R损伤过程中可通过抑制凋亡而发挥的保护作用,其机制可能涉及Beclin-1及Caspase-3等蛋白的表达调控。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.     

The universal muscular chamber. A basic unit of the genitourinary, cardiovascular, gastro-intestinal, skeletal, cutaneous, respiratory and other systems, endocameral hypertension; and spasm, the key to their idiopathic diseases and arthropathies

Starting with the integument, we see many organs are contractile sacs or multiples thereof, which tubes or bags constitute the major part of the entire body. Recognition of this basic unit and its characteristics sheds new light, individually and collectively, on many disorders previously considered unrelated. Muscular tears and perforations develop in the walls of these chambers, being no way peculiar to those organs, wherein, hydrochloric acid occurs. So, it is not necessary to explain the absence of excessive acid from patients who exhibit holes in the gastric, uterine, aortic, duodenal, rectal, pulmonary, retina, and other walls. Muscle, not acid is the great common factor relating idiopathic disorders in the gastrointestinal tract to each other and to similar diseases in other systems. When the units are linked together, the lesions tend to appear as arthropathies, i.e. at the joints. Rephrasing common-place observations, frees us from conventional, conceptual cul-de-sacs. An observation is only as good as its interpretation, so all possibilities must be considered, otherwise, we will remain blinded by our misconceptions.