HIV-testing behavior among young migrant men who have sex with men (MSM) in Beijing, China

Previous studies suggested a rapid increase of HIV prevalence among men who have sex with men (MSM) in China in recent years, from 0.4% in 2004 to 5.8% in 2006. However, some MSM had never been tested for HIV. In order to expand the accessibility to HIV testing, understanding HIV-testing behavior and barriers among MSM is important. Using data collected from 307 young migrant MSM (aged 18-29 years) in 2009 in Beijing, we aimed to identify psychological and structural barriers to HIV testing. MSM were recruited through peer outreach, informal social networks, Internet outreach, and venue-based outreach. Participants completed a confidential self-administered questionnaire. Results show that about 72% of MSM ever had an HIV test. Logistic regression analysis indicated that the HIV-testing behavior was associated with sexual risk behaviors (e.g., multiple sexual partners and inconsistent condom use for anal sex) and history of sexually transmitted diseases. Eighty four MSM (28%) who never had an HIV test reported that the psychological barriers mainly were perceived low risk of HIV infection and fears of being stigmatized. The structural barriers reported inconvenience of doing test and lack of confidentiality. Future HIV prevention programs should be strengthened among MSM to increase their awareness of HIV risk. Efforts are needed to increase access to quality and confidential HIV testing among MSM and reduce stigma against MSM.     

HIV Voluntary Counseling and Testing among Injection Drug Users in South China: A Study of a Non-Government Organization Based Program

HIV voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) programs are usually delivered by government health agencies in China. This study examined the feasibility of using a Chinese non-government organization (NGO) to deliver a VCT program to injection drug users (IDUs) in a southern Chinese city. The process data indicated the program successfully recruited and served 226 male and female IDUs in 4 months. The HIV prevalence rate of the study population was 57.5% by rapid HIV testing with a secondary rapid test to confirm. Quantitative and qualitative evaluations indicated that the VCT program was implemented appropriately and participants' HIV knowledge and safe drug and sex practices were significantly improved after participation in the VCT program. This study demonstrates the feasibility of a Chinese NGO to provide VCT for IDUs and documents the processes and outcomes of the program. There remains a great need to find additional sources to provide VCT and other HIV prevention services to IDUs and other high-risk populations in China. Chinese NGOs have the potential to fill this need.     

Cost-utility of HIV Testing Programs Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in the United States

Few groups in the United States (US) are as heavily affected by HIV as men who have sex with men (MSM), yet many MSM remain unaware of their infection. HIV diagnosis is important for decreasing onward transmission and promoting effective treatment for HIV, but the cost-effectiveness of testing programs is not well-established. This study reports on the costs and cost-utility of the MSM Testing Initiative (MTI) to newly diagnose HIV among MSM and link them to medical care. Cost and testing data in 15 US cities from January 2013 to March 2014 were prospectively collected and combined to determine the cost-utility of MTI in each city in terms of the cost per Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALY) saved from payer and societal perspectives. The total venue-based HIV testing costs ranged from $18,759 to $564,284 for nine to fifteen months of MTI implementation. The cost-saving threshold for HIV testing of MSM was $20,645 per new HIV diagnosis. Overall, 27,475 men were tested through venue-based MTI, of whom 807 (3 %) were newly diagnosed with HIV. These new diagnoses were associated with approximately 47 averted HIV infections. The cost per QALY saved by implementation of MTI in each city was negative, indicating that MTI venue-based testing was cost-saving in all cities. The cost-utility of social network and couples testing strategies was, however, dependent on whether the programs newly diagnosed MSM. The cost per new HIV diagnosis varied considerably across cities and was influenced by both the local cost of MSM testing implementation and by the seropositivity rate of those reached by the HIV testing program. While the cost-saving threshold for HIV testing is highly achievable, testing programs must successfully reach undiagnosed HIV-positive individuals in order to be cost-effective. This underscores the need for HIV testing programs which target and engage populations such as MSM who are most likely to have undiagnosed HIV to maximize programmatic benefit and cost-utility.     

Sexual Risks Among Southern Thai Drug Injectors

Sexual risks for HIV transmission among injection drug users (IDUs) in Thailand are not well characterized. We surveyed 272 male IDUs about their background, sexual behaviors, and drug use at drug treatment clinics in southern Thailand. HIV seroprevalence was determined using enzyme immunoassay. Fifty-six percent of participants were sexually active, of whom 88% had sex mostly with a noninjecting regular partner (wife or steady girlfriend), reporting low rates (34%) of condom use. Among sexually active IDUs, 43% were HIV infected and only a few were aware of their HIV serostatus. Condom use was associated with history of HIV voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) and poor perceived health status in multivariate analysis. Unprotected sex with regular sexual partners is frequent among IDUs in southern Thailand, where most IDUs have not sought VCT services. AIDS prevention efforts should address access to VCT and condom promotion to sexually active couples to prevent sexual transmission of HIV.     

HIV Voluntary Counseling and Testing Service Preferences in a Rural Malawi Population

Voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) services have become an integral component of HIV prevention efforts in sub-Saharan Africa. This study of a rural Malawi district population examined variation in past and desired use of VCT services among 868 women aged 15 to 34 and 648 men aged 20 to 44 aware of HIV/AIDS. Only 11% of men and 7% of women had been tested, but of those untested, 76% of men and 61% of women desired testing. Ninety percent of respondents willing to know their results preferred to hear them from a test site counselor and on the same day of the test. However, 27% of women wanting to be tested did not want to know their test results, a finding significantly associated with knowing someone affected by AIDS and perceiving oneself at HIV infection risk. Knowledge of the behaviors of HIV prevention, knowing someone with AIDS, knowing the locations of a test site, and perceived risk of HIV infection all had a consistently significant association with past and future VCT use for men and women.     

Empowering HIV testing as a prevention tool: targeting interventions for high-risk men who have sex with men

In France, HIV testing can be easily performed in free and anonymous voluntary counselling testing (VCT) centres. The recent national study among French men who have sex with men (MSM) showed that 73% of those already tested for HIV had been tested in the previous two years. Nothing is known about the risk behaviours of MSM attending VCT centres. This study aimed to characterize sexual risk behaviours of MSM tested for HIV in such centres and identify factors associated with inconsistent condom use (ICU). A cross-sectional study was conducted from March to December 2009 in four VCT centres where a self-administered questionnaire was proposed to all MSM about to have a HIV test. ICU was defined as reporting non-systematic condom use during anal intercourse with casual male partners. Among the 287 MSM who fully completed their questionnaire, 44% reported ICU in the previous six months. Among those who had been already tested, 63% had had their test in the previous two years. Factors independently associated with ICU included: never avoiding one-night stands, not having been recently HIV tested, experiencing difficulty in using condoms when with a HIV negative partner or when under the influence of drugs or alcohol and finally, reporting to have had a large number of casual male partners in the previous six months. The rate of recently tested MSM was high in our study. Nevertheless, this rate was lower than that found in the last national study. Furthermore those not recently tested were significantly more likely to report high risk behaviours. We therefore recommend that further efforts be made to adapt the offer of both HIV testing and counselling to meet the specific needs of hard-to-reach MSM. Accordingly, an additional community-based offer of HIV testing to reach most-at-risk MSM is forthcoming in France.     

云南省目标人群寻求和接受艾滋病自愿咨询检测服务的困难和障碍调查

目的了解阻碍云南省高危人群寻求和接受艾滋病自愿咨询检测（VCT）服务的影响因素,为改进现行的咨询检测服务体系和服务质量,提高VCT服务在高危人群中覆盖率提供科学依据。方法采用个人深入访谈和问卷调查相结合的方法,对云南省艾滋病流行水平和VCT服务水平不同的4个县（市）区的注射吸毒者、暗娼、男男性行为者和男性流动人口进行了调查,对VCT服务提供方进行个人深入访谈。对访谈资料进行归纳、整理和分析,用EPI和SPSS软件进行问卷资料的录入和分析。结果目标人群寻求和接受VCT服务的困难和障碍如下：（1）艾滋病本身的不可治愈性以及沉重的医疗负担;（2）社会恐惧和歧视;（3）VCT服务质量不高,服务方式单一;（4）对艾滋病及其相关服务的宣传不到位;（5）治疗、关怀和支持措施的落实不到位;（6）VCT服务资源投入不足,服务的主动性不够。结论（1）建立以咨询为基础的检测服务体系,完善转介服务网络,提高服务的可及性;（2）正面宣传艾滋病,加强对咨询检测和治疗、关怀服务的宣传;（3）加强对咨询检测工作的投入,建立和完善咨询检测工作的考核和激励机制,维护队伍的稳定,提高咨询检测服务质量。     

Awareness and Acceptability of Pre-exposure HIV Prophylaxis Among Men Who have Sex with Men in Baltimore

This paper assessed characteristics associated with awareness of and willingness to take pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among Baltimore men who have sex with men (MSM). We used data from BESURE-MSM3, a venue-based cross-sectional HIV surveillance study conducted among MSM in 2011. Multivariate regression was used to identify characteristics associated with PrEP knowledge and acceptability among 399 participants. Eleven percent had heard of PrEP, 48% would be willing to use PrEP, and none had previously used it. In multivariable analysis, black race and perceived discrimination against those with HIV were significantly associated with decreased awareness, and those who perceived higher HIV discrimination reported higher acceptability of PrEP. Our findings indicate a need for further education about the potential utility of PrEP in addition to other prevention methods among MSM. HIV prevention efforts should address the link between discrimination and potential PrEP use, especially among men of color.     

Rapid assessment of drug use and sexual HIV risk patterns among vulnerable drugusing populations in Cape Town,Durban and Pretoria,South Africa

This exploratory study examines the links between drug use and high-risk sexual practices and HIV in vulnerable drug-using populations in South Africa, including commercial sex workers (CSWs), men who have sex with men (MSM), injecting drug users (IDUs) and non-injecting drug users who are not CSWs or MSM (NIDUs). A rapid assessment ethnographic study was undertaken using observation, mapping, key informant interviews and focus groups in known ‘hotspots’ for drug use and sexual risk in Cape Town, Durban and Pretoria. Key informant (KI) and focus group interviews involved drug users and service providers. Purposeful snowball sampling and street intercepts were used to recruit drug users. Outcome measures included drug-related sexual HIV risk behaviour, and risk behaviour related to injection drug use, as well as issues related to service use. HIV testing of drug-using KIs was conducted using the SmartCheck Rapid HIV-1 Antibody Test. Non-injection drug use (mainly cannabis, methaqualone, crack cocaine and crystal methamphetamine) and injection drug use (mainly heroin) was occurring in these cities. Drug users report selling sex for money to buy drugs, and CSWs used drugs before, during and after sex. Most (70%) of the drug-using KIs offered HIV testing accepted and 28% were positive, with rates highest among CSWs and MSM. IDUs reported engaging in needle sharing and needle disposal practices that put them and others at risk for contracting HIV. There was a widespread lack of awareness about where to access HIV treatment and preventive services, and numerous barriers to accessing appropriate HIV and drug-intervention services were reported. Multiple risk behaviours of vulnerable populations and lack of access to HIV prevention services could accelerate the diffusion of HIV. Targeted interventions could play an important role in limiting the spread of HIV in and through these under-reached and vulnerable populations.     

Clients' Perspective of the Role of Voluntary Counseling and Testing in HIV/AIDS Prevention and Care in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania: The Voluntary Counseling and Testing Efficacy Study

There is a growing body of evidence that voluntary HIV counseling and testing (VCT) is effective for the primary prevention of HIV as well as for the care and support of individuals affected by HIV in developing countries. This qualitative study offers an additional perspective: the experiences and perceptions of men and women receiving VCT services. As a substudy of a large multisite clinical trial testing the effectiveness of VCT, 81 study participants at the Tanzania study site who were randomized to VCT at baseline were interviewed at the time of their 6-month follow-up. Findings are based on textual analysis of the following themes: HIV in the context of other life issues, motivations for receiving services, positive and negative consequences of VCT, and the role of VCT in risk reduction. Implications for service provision in developing countries are discussed.     

Characteristics of Individuals and Couples Seeking HIV-1 Prevention Services in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania: The Voluntary HIV-1 Counseling and Testing Efficacy Study

The objective of this paper is to describe the baseline characteristics, risk behavior, and HIV prevalence of individuals and couples who enrolled in the Voluntary HIV Counseling and Testing Efficacy Study at the study site in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Participants were recruited through flyers, radio, and outreach to schools and workplaces to participate in a randomized clinical trial testing the effectiveness of HIV voluntary counseling and testing (HIV VCT) for prevention of new HIV and STD infections. Recruitment was stratified to include men and women enrolling alone and as couples. Baseline data were collected in face-to-face interviews, then participants were randomized to receive HIV VCT or health information. A total of 1,427 participants were recruited, 708 women and 719 men; 444 participants enrolled as part of a couple. HIV seroprevalence for those who received VCT at baseline was 21% overall (12% men, 30% women). Those enrolled as couples reported less sexual risk behavior than those enrolled as individuals. Both couples and individuals reported high rates of unprotected sexual intercourse with commercial partners. Overall 45% of participants self-reported an STD symptom (54% of women and 36% of men), and men were more likely to have received treatment for their symptoms. A large number of individuals and couples responded to advertisements for VCT in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. High rates of HIV seroprevalence and couple serodiscordance, self-reported STD symptoms, and sexual risk behavior indicate that at-risk participants were recruited. Implications for delivery of HIV VCT and related services are discussed.     

NGO开展VCT预防静脉吸毒人群HIV/AIDS效果的研究

目的 研究非政府组织(NGO)开展自愿咨询检测(VCT)预防静脉吸毒人群艾滋病病毒/艾滋病(HIV/AIDS)的效果.方法 由妇女联合会承担VCT工作,疾病预防控制中心进行指导和培训,建立"家庭健康教育站",发动同伴招募社区静脉吸毒人员;提供检测前后咨询和快速检测服务;提供美沙酮替代治疗(MMT)和HIV/AIDS诊治转诊服务.结果 建立了NG0开展VCT预防社区静脉吸毒人群HIV/AIDS的工作模式.吸毒人员HIV抗体阳性率为57.5%,他们的艾滋病传播及预防知识的知晓率从VCT前的49.3%～86.2%提高到VCT后的81.1%～99.1%;共用针头、棉花、药液的百分率从45.2%～56.7%降到30.0%～33.6%;用漂白粉清洗针头/注射器的百分率从零提高到17%;吸毒者发生性行为时从不使用安全套的百分比从约82%减少到32.5%～38.4%,小于一半时间至每次使用安全套的百分比从0～9.8%提高到7.1%～24.4%.吸毒人员、HIV感染者获得了MMT和HIV/AIDS诊治转诊服务和心理支持.不歧视吸毒人员及HIV感染者的社区环境初步形成.结论 由NGO开展VCT预防静脉吸毒人群艾滋病可行、有效.     

HIV Testing and Preventive Services Accessibility Among Men Who Have Sex With Men at High Risk of HIV Infection in Beijing,China

The HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men (MSM) has been increasing at an alarming rate in most areas of China in recent years. Many Chinese MSM still lack sufficient access to HIV prevention services, despite ongoing scale-up of comprehensive HIV testing and intervention services. The purpose of this study was to investigate utilization of HIV testing and prevention services, and related factors that influence the MSM people to access HIV test or other services to prevent HIV among MSM in Beijing, China.Three successive cross-sectional surveys of MSM were conducted in Beijing from September 2009 to January 2010, September 2010 to January 2011, and September 2011 to January 2012. Demographic and behavioral data were collected and analyzed. Blood samples were tested for HIV and syphilis. Three models were established to analyze factors associated with HIV testing and preventive services.Of the 1312 participants, prevalence of HIV and syphilis was 7.9% and 15.4%, respectively. Sixty-nine percent ever had an HIV test, 56.2%, 78.7%, and 46.1% received HIV test, free condom/lubricants, and sexually transmitted infection services in the past 12 months (P12M), respectively. MSM with larger social networks and who knew someone infected with HIV were more likely to receive HIV testing and preventive services; lower degrees of stigma and discriminatory attitudes toward HIV/AIDS were positively associated with having an HIV test, whereas unprotected anal intercourse in the past 6 months (P6M) was associated with less preventive services participation. The most reported barriers to HIV testing were fear of testing HIV positive (79.3%) and perceiving no risk for HIV (75.4%). Almost all participants felt that ensuring confidentiality would encourage more MSM to have an HIV test. The two main reasons for not seeking HIV test was not knowing where to go for a test (63.2%) and perceiving low risk of HIV infection (55.1%).Given a high prevalence of HIV, syphilis, and risky behaviors and a relatively low HIV testing rate among MSM in Beijing, more efforts are urgently needed to address barriers to HIV testing and improve accessibility of prevention services.     

艾滋病低流行区自愿咨询检测实施三年效果评价

目的评价自愿咨询检测（VCT）策略在艾滋病低流行区（江苏）实施三年（2005-2007年）的效果,为进一步深化VCT策略提供依据。方法在性病门诊设置独立的艾滋病咨询室,提供规范的VCT服务,并实施社会动员、高危人群外展服务。收集2005-2007年在江苏省疾病预防控制中心VCT门诊接受咨询检测的求询者的信息,Epi data 3.1录入、建立数据库,并用SAS 9.1统计分析。结果三年共接受咨询检测4 439人。其中男男性行为者（MSM）369人,异性性行为者3 962人,血液接触者96人,职业暴露12人;重复检测1 342人。4 439人的HIV阳性检出率为1.01%,男女性之间HIV阳性检出率无显著性差异。HIV阳性检出率在≥30岁的求询者中为1.57%,在〈30岁的求询者中为0.67%,两者差异有显著性。MSM的HIV阳性检出率为5.69%,显著高于异性性行为者（0.28%）。在首次咨询检测者中阳性检出率为0.97%,重复检测者中为1.12%,两者差异无显著性。45例HIV感染者100%接受阳性结果告知和首次随访。多因素Logistic回归分析显示,HIV感染率与求询者特征中年龄≥30岁（OR=3.20,95%CI1.66～6.17）和同性接触（OR=28.20,95%CI13.20～60.30）有统计学关联。结论在低流行区,VCT服务在艾滋病综合防治中发挥着重要作用,也在为区域性艾滋病防治策略的调整提供线索。该地区艾滋病流行的危险因素仍然广泛存在。VCT点已成为发现HIV感染者实施综合防治措施的重要窗口。     

艾滋病门诊自愿咨询检测者HIV感染状况分析

目的了解艾滋病(AIDS)门诊自愿咨询检测(VCT)者艾滋病病毒(HIV)感染状况。方法对VCT人员的监测资料、HIV/AIDS患者的流行病学和临床资料进行统计分析。结果1 553例VCT者中共检测出37例HIV/AIDS患者。咨询者中以不洁性接触史(33.29%)、输血/血液制品(17.38%)及静脉吸毒(14.68%)的比例较高。结论静脉吸毒、输血/血液制品和性乱人群等是引起HIV传播的重要因素,在现有的医疗卫生服务条件下,实施可持续的VCT服务和综合关怀工作,可起到降低HIV传播风险及积极的预防干预作用。     

High HIV Risk but Inadequate Prevention Services for Men in China Who Have Sex with Men: An Ethnographic Study

China is facing an emerging HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men (MSM). However, the HIV risk and prevention needs of these men are not well understood. We conducted in-depth qualitative interviews between August and October 2000 with 38 persons who identified as being MSM or knowledgeable about the MSM population in Beijing. Our ethnographic study identified 20 different segments of the population of MSM in Beijing and 14 distinct types of venues where these men congregate. Despite high levels of sexual risk taking, few men perceived themselves to be at risk for HIV. The main reasons cited for engaging in unsafe sex were economic survival, misconceptions about HIV, inaccurate assessment of a partner's risk, trusting a partner or needing to prove a partner trustworthy, meeting an attractive partner, and cruising in public sex environments. The HIV prevention services currently available in Beijing include mass media education, hotline information and counseling services, venue-based outreach, hospital-based services, and Internet sites, but few of these programs specifically targeted the MSM population. The major barriers to utilizing exiting services were lack of perceived risk, lack of privacy and anonymity, uninteresting program content, and distrust and questionable credibility of providers. Programs need to address issues broader than AIDS, be peer-designed and peer-led, be entertaining, and receive more government support. Our data suggest that many MSM are at high risk for HIV, but receive inadequate services. More effective and sustainable programs must be developed and implemented to prevent the further spread of HIV in this population.     

2016-2018年鞍山市VCT门诊HIV感染者发现情况

目的 分析鞍山市艾滋病自愿咨询检测(VCT)门诊检测者的基本特征及艾滋病病毒(HIV)感染情况,为调整艾滋病防控策略提供理论依据.方法 对2016-2018年鞍山市VCT 门诊求询者的人口学特征、求询原因和HIV抗体检测结果进行分析.结果 2016-2018年共有18 398人次接受VCT服务,男女性别比为1:2.67...     

Voluntary counselling and testing sites as a source of sentinel information on HIV prevalence in a concentrated epidemic: a pilot project from Indonesia

A new system for monitoring HIV voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) outcomes was established in 2007 at seven VCT clinics in Jakarta and Bali, Indonesia. Counsellors collected demographic and risk information from VCT clients. Logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with HIV infection. In 15 months, HIV prevalence in 5569 new clients without HIV symptoms was 63.3% in injecting drug users (IDUs) (n = 783), 7.7% in female sex workers (n = 1437), 31.6% among transgender people (n = 395), 9.3% in men who have sex with men (n = 268), 13.5% in clients of sex workers (n = 643), 21.1% in people with high-risk partners (n = 569) and 3.2% in other VCT clients (n = 822). Among IDUs, being older, tested though outreach, tested due to being 'at risk' and having injected for one or more years were independently associated with HIV infection. This network confirmed high HIV prevalence among IDUs and transgender people. HIV prevalence estimates were consistent with serosurveys.     

Predictors of voluntary HIV counselling and testing services utilization among people with disabilities in Addis Ababa,Ethiopia

The study investigated HIV testing prevalence and factors associated with the utilization of voluntary HIV counselling and testing (VCT) services among individuals with disabilities in Addis Ababa. The analysis was based on a survey of 209 men and 203 women with disabilities, aged 15–49, who had ever heard about HIV and AIDS in four sub-cities in Addis Ababa. HIV testing prevalence was 53.2%, with no significant difference between males and females. Comprehensive HIV knowledge, living with spouse, and religious affiliations positively predicted utilization of VCT services among participants. Living with both parents and having physical or mental/intellectual disabilities were negative predictors of VCT services utilization. More research on the predictors of utilization of VCT services by gender and urban/rural divides are needed among people with disabilities.     

天津市2008-2011年MSM人群HIV流行趋势分析

目的了解天津市2008-2011年男男性行为人群(MSM)艾滋病病毒(HIV)的流行趋势,为在该人群中开展相关控制措施提供依据。方法分析2008-2011年天津市监测中新发现的MSM中的HIV/艾滋病(AIDS)病例情况、MSM人群血清学监测的数据以及横断面调查数据。结果新发现HIV/AIDS病例中,MSM病例所占比例最高,2008-2011年病例报告显示的构成比及报告数量增长最快的传播途径是男男性传播。MSM病例中流动人口占53.3%,未婚占61.0%,高中及以上文化程度占69.6%,15～29岁占47.2%。无偿献血及自愿咨询和检测发现的阳性病例中,MSM所占的比例最高。血清学监测结果显示,天津市MSM人群HIV感染率维持在稳定水平。横断面调查结果显示,MSM近6个月发生同性性行为时每次都使用安全套构成的中位数为35.85%,近6个月中最近1次发生同性性行为时安全套使用率中位数为59.55%,近6个月与异性发生性行为比例的中位数为18.05%,梅毒检出的中位数为18.25%,HIV检出的中位数为6.25%。结论 MSM人群为天津市HIV/AIDS感染的主要人群,艾滋病流行趋势严重,危险行为普遍存在,急需采取有效措施控制HIV通过其传播及扩散。