G蛋白信号蛋白的调节剂：新的多功能药物靶点

G蛋白信号调节（RGS）是蛋白新近发现的能调节G蛋白功能的蛋白家族。RGS能通过加速鸟苷三磷酸（GTP）水解抑制G蛋白信号，即其GTP酶活化蛋白（GAP）功能。此外，RGS还能通过其RGS区域和非RGS区域产生非GAP功能。此类蛋白的组织分布特异，受到信号传递物质的调节并能在活细胞产生特定功能，也因而 而成为新的药理和治疗靶点。以RGS蛋白为靶点的药物分为5类：增强内源性激动剂功能的药物；阻断外源性G蛋白偶联受体（GPCR）激动剂脱敏的药物；增强外源性激动剂功能的药物，RGS蛋白效应器信号抑制剂；RGS激动剂。     

G蛋白信号调节因子在心血管系统中的作用

G蛋白偶联受体（G-Protein-Coupled-Receptors,GPCRs）在体内分布广泛,几乎参与所有生理活动的调节。G蛋白调节因子（Regulator of G protein Signaling,RGS）参与了G蛋白失活的调节。目前研究已证明,参与心血管系统生理和病理活动的很多递质和激素都是通过GPCR信号转导通路发挥作用的。RGS蛋白通过调节GPCR通路信号转导和非GPCR依赖性途径影响多种心血管疾病的发生,其在心脏血管结构和功能中的地位已逐渐引起重视,有望成为相关疾病治疗的新靶点。本文将就RGS蛋白及其在心血管系统中的作用作一综述。     

G蛋白偶联受体固有活性研究进展与新药开发

G蛋白偶联受体(G-prote in-coup led receptor,GPCR)是与G蛋白有信号连接的一大类受体家族,是人体内最大的膜受体蛋白家族,是一类具有7个跨膜螺旋的跨膜蛋白受体。GPCR的结构特征和在信号传导中的重要作用决定了其可以作为很好的药物靶标。目前世界药物市场上有三分之一的小分子药物是GPCR的激活剂(agon ist)或拮抗剂(antagon ist)。以其为靶点的药物在医药产业中占据显著地位。在当今前50种最畅销的上市药物中,20%属于G蛋白受体相关药物。近来的研究发现,大多数G蛋白偶联受体具有一个很重要的特性,就是具有固有活性(Constitutive ac-tivity),即无激动剂条件受体自发的维持激活并维持下游信号传导通路的活性。固有活性涉及受体、G蛋白及下游信号通路之间的关系。该文就G蛋白偶联受体固有活性概念、研究进展、反相激动剂与固有活性研究、固有活性与新药开发4个方面,进行以下论述。     

G蛋白偶联受体/分泌酶复合体调节阿尔兹海默症发病进程的新机制

目的目前对于特异性调控分泌酶剪切淀粉样蛋白前体蛋白的分子机制尚不十分清楚,而临床上抗阿尔兹海默症(A lzhe im ers′D isease,AD)药物的疗效也不足以从根本上缓解病理症状的恶化。对G-蛋白偶联受体(G-prote in coup led receptors,GPCR s)在AD疾病进程的调节机制相关研究进展予以总结,对于以GPCR作为药物靶点的潜在可能性进行讨论。方法对于特异性调控分泌酶剪切淀粉样蛋白前体蛋白的分子机制相关的细胞生物学领域以及AD疾病模型上对于发病机制的研究进展进行总结归纳,并针对该领域的几个重要科学问题进行讨论。结果与结论GPCR对于AD疾病进程的调节机制,尤其是其与分泌酶形成的复合体对于β-淀粉样蛋白(amyloid-,βAβ)产生以及AD发病的调节机制,具有理想的特异性,可成为抗AD药物的新型潜在靶点。     

肾脏中G蛋白偶联受体信号转导的多样性

G蛋白偶联受体(GPCR)是最重要的药物靶点之一;临床有超过30%处方药是直接作用在GPCR上的。在肾脏中,升压素受体、血管紧张素受体、内皮素受体、前列腺素受体和嘌呤受体等都对肾脏的多种功能有重要的调控作用,也是重要的治疗肾病的药物靶点。多种靶向这些肾脏GPCR的激动剂或者拮抗剂已经进入临床应用或者临床测试阶段。然而,这些GPCR药物的设计主要以激动剂和拮抗剂进行区分,与GPCR的功能多样性存在着一定的鸿沟。我们最近在研究靶向血管紧张素受体(AT1R)的药理学研究过程中,不仅发现了高同型半胱氨酸是血管紧张素受体的内源性配体,还发现Arrestin偏向性信号途径不仅可以介导传统的第二波信号途径,还可以在时序上进行第一波信号转导,通过激活TRPC3来促进肾上腺素的释放,从而产生在治疗心血管疾病时的有害作用。我们据此提出了更合理的靶向AT1R开发药物的方法。不仅如此,我们还针对升压素受体的磷酸化编码,阐明了Arrestin对GPCR的磷酸化编码的识别机制,Arrestin的多聚脯氨酸码头的分选机制,以及配体通过操控受体7此跨膜核心与Arrestin的相互作用来指导Arrestin功能的机制。这些研究工作为以后特异性的靶向GPCR的Arrestin信号通路开发药物奠定了基础。     

G蛋白偶联受体激酶活性调控与细胞炎性损伤

G蛋白偶联受体激酶 (Gprotein coupledreceptorki nases,GRKs)不仅调节G蛋白偶联受体 (GPCR)磷酸化、介导受体脱敏 ,使信号效应降低或消失 ,而且也调节G蛋白和靶细胞骨架 ,同时它还受到蛋白激酶A(PKA)、蛋白激酶C(PKC)、肌动蛋白和细胞内第二信使钙离子等调节。组织细胞表面存在多种GPCR如血小板活化因子 (PAF)受体、组胺受体、凝血酶受体等 ,介导炎性介质所致细胞损伤的信号转导作用。GRKs磷酸化GPCR ,在炎症诱导细胞损伤过程中起一定调控作用     

单分子技术在G蛋白偶联受体二聚体中的应用

G蛋白偶联受体(G protein-coupled receptors,GPCRs)不仅能以单体的形式发挥生物学作用,还可以相互作用形成同源/异源二聚体,后者是调节受体功能的一种重要方式,能改变下游信号蛋白的偶联,产生特异信号转导通路,介导一系列生理和病理过程,如心血管调节、能量代谢等。因此,GPCR二聚体成为新型药物靶点之一,备受关注。但是以往对GPCR二聚体的研究一直是按总体平均水平(ensemble average)进行,这隐藏了有价值的信息,失去了生物异质性的有用数据。单分子技术具有前所未有的时空分辨率,能够直接显示GPCR二聚体的内部状态、运动轨迹,以及随着时间和周围环境的变化而转变等,有助于进一步剖析GPCR二聚体的关键作用和相关药物的开发。因此,该文将对研究GPCR二聚体的单分子技术(如全内反射荧光显微镜、受激发射损耗显微技术、基态耗尽显微术等)进行简要综述。     

G蛋白偶联受体激酶活性调控及其在恶性肿瘤中的作用

G蛋白偶联受体(GPCR),是一类重要的细胞表面受体。G蛋白偶联受体激酶(GRK)属于丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶家族,其亚型广泛存在与各种组织,能够特异性地使活化的GPCR发生磷酸化及脱敏,从而终止GPCR介导的信号转导通路。新的研究还发现,GRK不仅作用于GPCR,也可以通过使非GPCR磷酸化或通过非磷酸化作用参与信号转导。GRK不仅能够调节GPCR和非GPCR,其自身活性也可受到多种因素的调节。本文结合GRK的多种功能作用和GRK活性调控,对GRK在脑、内分泌、生殖系统、消化系统及黑色素肿瘤中的作用做简要综述。     

G蛋白信号调节因子2与心血管疾病的关系

G蛋白信号转导的调节是当前分子生物学研究的热点内容之一。G蛋白信号转导的持续时间和强度受G蛋白信号调节因子的调节。作为一个不断增加的新的蛋白家族,RGS都有一个高度保守的具有GAP活性的RGS结构域。这些RGS蛋白的功能也正在逐渐被认识。目前在心血管疾病中研究和认识较多的是RGS2。本文将对RGS2与高血压等心血管疾病的关系作一综述。     

G蛋白偶联受体在肝细胞癌中调控作用研究进展

G蛋白偶联受体(GPCR),又称为7-α螺旋跨膜蛋白受体,是己知的3类涉及跨膜信号转导的膜受体之一。GPCR与G蛋白结合产生生物学效应,对机体生理功能和病理过程有广泛的调控作用。大量研究表明,GPCR通过调节下游某些信号的转导途径影响肝癌细胞的增殖、侵袭和转移过程,参与肝细胞癌(HCC)的发生和发展。本文就趋化因子受体、前列腺素受体、肾上腺素受体和血管紧张素受体等GPCR及其相关的信号通路在HCC发生发展进程中的作用进行综述,并对靶向GPCR的HCC治疗前景予以展望。     

Regulators of G-protein signalling as new central nervous system drug targets

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are major targets for drug discovery. The regulator of G-protein signalling (RGS)-protein family has important roles in GPCR signal transduction. RGS proteins contain a conserved RGS-box, which is often accompanied by other signalling regulatory elements. RGS proteins accelerate the deactivation of G proteins to reduce GPCR signalling; however, some also have an effector function and transmit signals. Combining GPCR agonists with RGS inhibitors should potentiate responses, and could markedly increase the agonist's regional specificity. The diversity of RGS proteins with highly localized and dynamically regulated distributions in brain makes them attractive targets for pharmacotherapy of central nervous system disorders.     

Regulators of G-protein signaling and their Gα substrates: promises and challenges in their use as drug discovery targets

Because G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) continue to represent excellent targets for the discovery and development of small-molecule therapeutics, it is posited that additional protein components of the signal transduction pathways emanating from activated GPCRs themselves are attractive as drug discovery targets. This review considers the drug discovery potential of two such components: members of the "regulators of G-protein signaling" (RGS protein) superfamily, as well as their substrates, the heterotrimeric G-protein α subunits. Highlighted are recent advances, stemming from mouse knockout studies and the use of "RGS-insensitivity" and fast-hydrolysis mutations to Gα, in our understanding of how RGS proteins selectively act in (patho)physiologic conditions controlled by GPCR signaling and how they act on the nucleotide cycling of heterotrimeric G-proteins in shaping the kinetics and sensitivity of GPCR signaling. Progress is documented regarding recent activities along the path to devising screening assays and chemical probes for the RGS protein target, not only in pursuits of inhibitors of RGS domain-mediated acceleration of Gα GTP hydrolysis but also to embrace the potential of finding allosteric activators of this RGS protein action. The review concludes in considering the Gα subunit itself as a drug target, as brought to focus by recent reports of activating mutations to GNAQ and GNA11 in ocular (uveal) melanoma. We consider the likelihood of several strategies for antagonizing the function of these oncogene alleles and their gene products, including the use of RGS proteins with Gα(q) selectivity.     

Regulators of G protein signaling (RGS proteins): Novel central nervous system drug targets

Abstract: Many drugs of abuse signal through receptors that couple to G proteins (GPCRs), so the factors that control GPCR signaling are likely to be important to the understanding of drug abuse. Contributions by the recently identified protein family, regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) to the control of GPCR function are just beginning to be understood. RGS proteins can accelerate the deactivation of G proteins by 1000‐fold and in cell systems they profoundly inhibit signaling by many receptors, including mu‐opioid receptors. Coupled with the known dynamic regulation of RGS protein expression and function, they are of obvious interest in understanding tolerance and dependence mechanisms. Furthermore, drugs that could inhibit their activity could be useful in preventing the development of or in treating drug dependence.     

RGS6 as a Novel Therapeutic Target in CNS Diseases and Cancer

Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins are gatekeepers regulating the cellular responses induced by G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated activation of heterotrimeric G proteins. Specifically, RGS proteins determine the magnitude and duration of GPCR signaling by acting as a GTPase-activating protein for Gα subunits, an activity facilitated by their semiconserved RGS domain. The R7 subfamily of RGS proteins is distinguished by two unique domains, DEP/DHEX and GGL, which mediate membrane targeting and stability of these proteins. RGS6, a member of the R7 subfamily, has been shown to specifically modulate Gα_i/o protein activity which is critically important in the central nervous system (CNS) for neuronal responses to a wide array of neurotransmitters. As such, RGS6 has been implicated in several CNS pathologies associated with altered neurotransmission, including the following: alcoholism, anxiety/depression, and Parkinson’s disease. In addition, unlike other members of the R7 subfamily, RGS6 has been shown to regulate G protein-independent signaling mechanisms which appear to promote both apoptotic and growth-suppressive pathways that are important in its tumor suppressor function in breast and possibly other tissues. Further highlighting the importance of RGS6 as a target in cancer, RGS6 mediates the chemotherapeutic actions of doxorubicin and blocks reticular activating system (Ras)-induced cellular transformation by promoting degradation of DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) to prevent its silencing of pro-apoptotic and tumor suppressor genes. Together, these findings demonstrate the critical role of RGS6 in regulating both G protein-dependent CNS pathology and G protein-independent cancer pathology implicating RGS6 as a novel therapeutic target.     

Structure‐based design,synthesis, and pharmacologic evaluation tf peptide RGS4 inhibitors

Abstract: Regulators of G‐protein signaling (RGS) proteins form a multifunctional signaling family. A key role of RGS proteins is binding to the G‐protein Gα‐subunit and acting as GTPase‐activating proteins (GAPs), thereby rapidly terminating G protein‐coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. Using the published RGS4–G_iα1 X‐ray structure we have designed and synthesized a series of cyclic peptides, modeled on the G_iα Switch I region, that inhibit RGS4 GAP activity. These compounds should prove useful for elucidating RGS‐mediated activity and serve as a starting point for the development of a novel class of therapeutic agent.     

Identification of peptides that inhibit regulator of G protein signaling 4 function

Regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) are a family of GTPase-activating proteins (GAP) that interact with heterotrimeric G proteins in the negative regulation of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. RGS4, the first identified mammalian member of the RGS family, has been implicated in many GPCR signaling pathways involved in disease states. We report herein the identification of a 16-amino-acid peptide (P17) as an inhibitor of RGS4. The peptide was found by screening a random peptide library using RGS4 as 'bait' in a yeast two-hybrid system. This peptide inhibited RGS4 GAP activity on Galpha(i1)in a GTPase assay, and blocked the interaction between RGS4 and Galpha(i1)in a pull-down assay. The peptide displayed dose-dependent inhibition of RGS4 and Galpha-interacting protein (GAIP) GAP activities, yet showed no substantial effect on RGS7. Electrophysiological studies in Xenopus oocytes demonstrated that P17 attenuates RGS4 modulation of M(2) muscarinic receptor stimulation of GIRK (G-protein-mediated inwardly rectifying potassium) channels. Deletion of an arginine at the N terminus of P17 abolished its ability to inhibit RGS4 GAP activity, as did deletions of C-terminal residues. The P17 peptide showed no similarity to any known peptide sequence. Further investigation and optimization of the peptide may provide unique information for the development of RGS4 inhibitors for future therapeutic application.     

R7BP Modulates Opiate Analgesia and Tolerance but not Withdrawal

The adaptor protein R7 family binding protein (R7BP) modulates G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling and desensitization by controlling the function of regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins. R7BP is expressed throughout the brain and appears to modulate the membrane localization and stability of three proteins that belong to R7 RGS family: RGS6, RGS7, and RGS9-2. RGS9-2 is a potent negative modulator of opiate and psychostimulant addiction and promotes the development of analgesic tolerance to morphine, whereas the role of RGS6 and RGS7 in addiction remains unknown. Recent studies revealed that functional deletion of R7BP reduces R7 protein activity by preventing their anchoring to the cell membrane and enhances GPCR responsiveness in the basal ganglia. Here, we take advantage of R7BP knockout mice in order to examine the way interventions in R7 proteins function throughout the brain affect opiate actions. Our results suggest that R7BP is a negative modulator of the analgesic and locomotor activating actions of morphine. We also report that R7BP contributes to the development of morphine tolerance. Finally, our data suggest that although prevention of R7BP actions enhances the analgesic responses to morphine, it does not affect the severity of somatic withdrawal signs. Our data suggest that interventions in R7BP actions enhance the analgesic effect of morphine and prevent tolerance, without affecting withdrawal, pointing to R7BP complexes as potential new targets for analgesic drugs.     

G protein-coupled receptors and their signaling pathways: classical therapeutical targets susceptible to novel therapeutic concepts

In recent years, new strategies in cancer therapy have been developed targeting key signaling molecules in the receptor tyrosine kinase signal transduction pathway. In contrast, most therapeutical concepts to manipulate G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR)-mediated disorders are still limited to the use of receptor-specific agonists or antagonists. Visible progress in the understanding of GPCR signaling complexity, especially the detection of several families of highly target- and cell-specific regulator proteins of GPCRs, G proteins, and effector components may open new horizons to develop novel therapeutical concepts targeting GPCR signaling elements. Thus, this review will focus on different molecular levels that may be of particular interest in terms of new drug development such as: (i) GPCR subtypes, allosteric binding sites, dimerization and constitutive activity, the use of RAMPs (receptor-activity-modifying proteins) and RASSLs (receptor activated solely by synthetic ligands); (ii) AGS (activators of G protein signaling) and RGS (regulators of G protein signaling) proteins which modify G protein activity; (iii) the high diversity of isozymes involved in the generation, signal transmission, and degradation of second messenger molecules.     

R4 Regulator of G Protein Signaling (RGS) Proteins in Inflammation and Immunity

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have important functions in both innate and adaptive immunity, with the capacity to bridge interactions between the two arms of the host responses to pathogens through direct recognition of secreted microbial products or the by-products of host cells damaged by pathogen exposure. In the mid-1990s, a large group of intracellular proteins was discovered, the regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) family, whose main, but not exclusive, function appears to be to constrain the intensity and duration of GPCR signaling. The R4/B subfamily—the focus of this review—includes RGS1–5, 8, 13, 16, 18, and 21, which are the smallest RGS proteins in size, with the exception of RGS3. Prominent roles in the trafficking of B and T lymphocytes and macrophages have been described for RGS1, RGS13, and RGS16, while RGS18 appears to control platelet and osteoclast functions. Additional G protein independent functions of RGS13 have been uncovered in gene expression in B lymphocytes and mast cell-mediated allergic reactions. In this review, we discuss potential physiological roles of this RGS protein subfamily, primarily in leukocytes having central roles in immune and inflammatory responses. We also discuss approaches to target RGS proteins therapeutically, which represents a virtually untapped strategy to combat exaggerated immune responses leading to inflammation.     

N-terminal residues control proteasomal degradation of RGS2, RGS4, and RGS5 in human embryonic kidney 293 cells

Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins modulate G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. The N termini of some RGS4-family proteins provide receptor specificity and also contain an N-end rule determinant that results in ubiquitylation and decreased protein expression. The relevance of these mechanisms to other RGS proteins is not fully understood. Thus we examined function, receptor specificity, and expression of R4 subfamily RGS proteins (RGS2, -3, -4, -5, and -8). Although the N terminus plays a key role in protein stability in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells, we were unable to demonstrate specificity of RGS2, -3, -4, -5, or -8 for muscarinic receptors (M(1), M(3), and M(5)). However, cellular RGS activity (8 = 3 > 2) was strongly correlated with expression; RGS4 and -5 had minimal expression and activity. Stabilizing mutations of RGS4 and -5 (C2S) enhanced expression and function with a greater influence on RGS4 than on RGS5. We were surprised to find that a predicted destabilizing mutation in RGS8 (A2C) did not markedly affect expression and had no effect on function. In contrast, a destabilizing mutation in RGS2 (RGS2-Q2L) recently identified as a rare N-terminal genetic variant in a Japanese hypertensive cohort (J Hypertens 23:1497-1505, 2005) showed significantly reduced expression and inhibition of angiotensin II (AT(1)) receptor-stimulated accumulation of inositol phosphates. We were surprised to find that RGS2-Q2R, also predicted to be destabilizing, showed nearly normal expression and function. Thus, proteasomal regulation of RGS expression in HEK293 cells strongly controls RGS function and a novel RGS2 mutation with decreased protein expression could be relevant to the pathophysiology of hypertension in humans.