Phospholipids and Lipid-Based Formulations in Oral Drug Delivery

Phospholipids become increasingly important as formulation excipients and as active ingredients per se. The present article summarizes particular features of commonly used phospholipids and their application spectrum within oral drug formulation and elucidates current strategies to improve bioavailability and disposition of orally administered drugs. Advantages of phospholipids formulations not only comprise enhanced bioavailability of drugs with low aqueous solubility or low membrane penetration potential, but also improvement or alteration of uptake and release of drugs, protection of sensitive active agents from degradation in the gastrointestinal tract, reduction of gastrointestinal side effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and even masking of bitter taste of orally applied drugs. Technological strategies to achieve these effects are highly diverse and offer various possibilities of liquid, semi-liquid and solid lipid-based formulations for drug delivery optimization.     

Lipid-Based Formulations and Drug Supersaturation: Harnessing the Unique Benefits of the Lipid Digestion/Absorption Pathway

Pharmaceutical Research - Drugs with low aqueous solubility commonly show low and erratic absorption after oral administration. Myriad approaches have therefore been developed to promote drug...     

Effects of Pluronic Block Copolymers on Drug Absorption in Caco-2 Cell Monolayers

Purpose. The present work characterizes the effects of Pluronic copolymers on the transport of a P-gp-dependent probe, rhodamine 123 (R123) in Caco-2 cell monolayers. Methods. The accumulation and efflux studies were performed on the confluent Caco-2 monolayers using fluorescent probes with and without Pluronic copolymers. Results. At concentrations below the critical micelle concentration single chains ("unimers) of Pluronic P85 enhanced the accumulation and inhibited the efflux of R123 in Caco-2 monolayers. The transport of the P-gp-independent probe, rhodamine 110 was not altered under these conditions. In contrast the micelles increased R123 accumulation to a much lower extent when compared to the unimers and enhanced R123 efflux in Caco-2 monolayers. Conclusions. Pluronic P85 unimers increase accumulation of a P-gp-dependent drug in Caco-2 monolayers through inhibition of the P-gp efflux system. The mechanism of the micelle effect is not known, however, it is very similar to the micelle effects in BBMEC. This has been previously shown to involve vesicular transport of the micelle-incorporated drug. The study suggests that Pluronic copolymers can be useful in increasing oral absorption of select drugs.     

Intestinal Drug Absorption and Metabolism in Cell Cultures: Caco-2 and Beyond

Pharmaceutical Research -     

Drug Absorption Limited by P-Glycoprotein-Mediated Secretory Drug Transport in Human Intestinal Epithelial Caco-2 Cell Layers

The hypothesis was tested that the operation of an ATP-dependent export pump localized at the apical (brush border) surface of the intestinal epithelium may limit substrate absorption kinetics. Human intestinal Caco-2 cell-layers display saturable secretion of vinblastine from basal to apical surfaces (K _m, 18.99 ± 5.55 µM; V _max, 1285.9 ± 281.2 pmol cm^–2 hr^–1) that is inhibited by verapamil, consistent with the expression of the ATP-dependent P-glycoprotein drug efflux pump at the apical brush border membrane. Inhibition of P-glycoprotein by a variety of modulators (verapamil, 1,9-dideoxyforskolin, nifedipine, and taxotere) is associated with an increased vinblastine absorptive permeability. Vinblastine absorption displayed a nonlinear dependence upon luminal (apical) vinblastine concentration, and vinblastine absorption increased markedly at concentrations where vinblastine secretory flux was saturated (>20 µM). Upon inhibition of P-glycoprotein by verapamil and 1,9-dideoxyforskolin, vinblastine absorption increased and was linearly dependent on vinblastine concentration. The limitation of P-glycoprotein substrate absorption by active ATP-dependent export via P-glycoprotein is discussed, together with the possibility that other classes of substrate may be substrates for different ATP-dependent export pumps.     

Drug Delivery Studies in Caco-2 Monolayers. IV. Absorption Enhancer Effects of Cyclodextrins

Purpose. The purpose of the present study was to use the human colorectal carcinoma cell line, Caco-2, as a human intestinal epithelial model for studying the effects of cyclodextrins as absorption enhancers. Methods. Cyclodextrins of varying sizes and physico-chemical characters were investigated. The effects of the cyclodextrins were evaluated by means of staining of the cytoplasma and determination of the mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity as well as by transport enhancement of the macromolecular pore marker polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG-4000) across the Caco-2 monolayers. Results. The transport enhancing properties of the cyclodextrins were found to follow the lipophilicity of the core in their cyclic structure. Dimethyl--cyclodextrin was the most powerful in all aspects and caused an increase in the permeability of the cytoplasma membrane in a concentration dependent manner. It was possible to increase the overall transport of PEG-4000 10-fold by the use of dimethyl--cyclodextrin in low concentrations where the toxic effects on the monolayers were insignificant. It was further observed that the basolateral membrane was significantly more sensitive to cyclodextrins than the apical membrane. Conclusions. Since dimethyl--cyclodextrin was able to produce an absorption enhancing effect on PEG-4000 in concentrations where the toxic effects on Caco-2 monolayers were low it is worth to pursue the compound as an absorption enhancer.     

姜黄素在Caco-2细胞模型中的吸收机制研究

目的测定姜黄素透过Caco-2单细胞层的浓度,研究其吸收特征。方法用Caco-2细胞单层模型来考察时间、浓度、不同药物酮康唑、维拉帕米、胡椒碱对姜黄素吸收的影响。采用液相色谱-质谱联用(LC-MS)法,测定姜黄素浓度并计算其表观渗透系数(Papp)。结果不同浓度姜黄素在90 min之前Papp大小顺序为:180>240>300μg/ml;与对照组比较,胡椒碱,低浓度酮康唑,维拉帕米对姜黄素的吸收均呈不同程度的促进作用(P<0.05)。结论姜黄素的吸收具有明显的高浓度饱和现象,且不呈线性变化,初步判定其吸收为主动吸收机制;促进姜黄素吸收的原因可能与酮康唑抑制Ⅰ相代谢酶CYP450 3A4和1A2酶的活性;胡椒碱抑制姜黄素Ⅱ相代谢酶—葡萄糖醛酸苷酶;维拉帕米抑制药物外排性转运蛋白—P-糖蛋白的活性有关。     

姜黄素在Caco-2细胞模型中的吸收机制研究

目的 测定姜黄素透过Caco-2单细胞层的浓度,研究其吸收特征.方法 用Caco-2细胞单层模型来考察时间、浓度、不同药物酮康唑、维拉帕米、胡椒碱对姜黄素吸收的影响.采用液相色谱-质谱联用(LC-MS)法,测定姜黄素浓度并计算其表观渗透系数(Papp).结果 不同浓度姜黄素在90 min之前Papp大小顺序为:180 ＞240 ＞300 μg/ml;与对照组比较,胡椒碱,低浓度酮康唑,维拉帕米对姜黄素的吸收均呈不同程度的促进作用(P＜0.05).结论 姜黄素的吸收具有明显的高浓度饱和现象,且不呈线性变化,初步判定其吸收为主动吸收机制;促进姜黄素吸收的原因可能与酮康唑抑制Ⅰ相代谢酶CYP450 3A4和1A2酶的活性;胡椒碱抑制姜黄素Ⅱ相代谢酶-葡萄糖醛酸苷酶;维拉帕米抑制药物外排性转运蛋白-P-糖蛋白的活性有关.     

Caco-2 Cell Culture as a Model for Famotidine Absorption

The aim of the study was to determine penetration properties of Famotidine fro the formulations through colon adenocarcinoma (Caco)-2 cell monolayers and to compare in vitro with in vivo test results. It also aimed to determine the effect of particle size on the penetration properties of Famotidine when microsphere formulations were used. Famotidine was chosen as a model drug and Caco-2 cell culture model was used. Biodegradable Famotidine microspheres of poly(lactide-co-glycolide)(PLGA) polymer (50:50) were prepared by using multiple emulsion technique. Microspheres were coded according to their particle size and polymer[LHIV:60 μm Famotidine-PLGA(high viscosity), SHIV:6 μm Famotidine PLGA(high viscosity), LLIV:60 μm Famotidine-PLGA (low viscosity), SLIV:6 μm Famotidine-PLGA (low viscosity)]. Famotidine solution(5 mg/ml) and microsphere formulations were administered orally to mice and blood drug levels were determined and compared with the Caco-2 cell experiments. Permeability values of Famotidine through Caco-2 cells from various formulations were determined (log k_solution = 7, 274 ± 0, 010, log k_SHIV = -3, 884 ± 0, 033, log k_LHIV = -2, 300 ± 0, 009, log k_SLIV = -4, 076 ± 0, 208, log k_LLIV = 3, 525 ± 0, 045). Our results showed that H₂ receptor antagonists alter the barrier properties of the Caco-2 cell monolayer by causing an increment in the tightness of the tight junctions. Therefore, amount of the H₂ receptor antagonist-like drug at the site of action was found to be important as well as polymer type and particle size of microspheres for drug permeation. Permeation of the drug was lower when higher amounts of Famotidine were present at the diffusion site. A controlled release dosage form of H₂ receptor antagonist-like drugs may be beneficial for long-term treatments.     

Human Drug Absorption Kinetics and Comparison to Caco-2 Monolayer Permeabilities

Purpose. This study aims to assess the drug absorption kinetics of three drugs and compare their resulting first-order intestinal permeation rate constants to their Caco-2 monolayer permeabilities. Methods. In vitro dissolution — in vivo absorption analysis was conducted on four formulations of each ranitidine HC1, metoprolol tartrate, and piroxicam to yield apparent and "true human clinical permeation rate constants. Drug permeability coefficients through Caco-2 monolayers were also determined. Results. In vitro dissolution — in vivo absorption analysis revealed different relative and absolute contributions of dissolution and intestinal permeation to overall drug absorption kinetics for various drug formulations and yielded estimates of each drug's true and apparent human intestinal permeation rate constant [k _p = 0.225 hr^–1, 0.609 hr^–l, and 9.00 hr^–1 for ranitidine, metoprolol, and piroxicam, respectively]. A rank order relationship was observed for both the apparent and true permeation rate constant with Caco-2 monolayer permeability. The decrease in the true permeation rate constant relative to the apparent permeation rate constant was most significant (almost three-fold) for the least permeable compound, ranitidine. Conclusions. There were marked differences in the permeation kinetics of ranitidine, metoprolol, and piroxicam. The possibility of an association between absorption kinetics from dosage forms in humans and Caco-2 monolayer permeability may allow for a direct kinetic interpretation of human oral absorption from Caco-2 monolayer permeability values.     

Biopharmaceutics: Cytotoxicity of Absorption Enhancers in Caco-2 Cell Monolayers

This study was performed to evaluate the utility of absorption enhancers with reference to mucosal cell cytotoxicity. Overall assessment of the damage to plasma, lysosomal and nuclear membranes by three absorption enhancers, sodium deoxycholate, sodium caprate and dipotassium glycyrrhizinate, was performed on Caco-2 cell monolayers. The cytotoxicities of sodium deoxycholate (0.02–0.1% w/v), sodium caprate (0.1–0.5% w/v) and dipotassium glycyrrhizinate (0.5–2% w/v) were evaluated by the trypan blue-exclusion test, the protein-release test, the neutral-red assay, the DNA-propidium iodide staining test and the test for recovery of transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) up to 24 h after treatment with each enhancer. Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS; 0.1% w/v), a potent surfactant, was used as positive control. SDS at this level was significantly cytotoxic whereas dipotassium glycyrrhizinate was not cytotoxic in any tests. Results from the trypan blue-exclusion and protein-release tests showed that high concentrations of sodium caprate (0.5% w/v) and sodium deoxycholate (0.1% w/v) were significantly cytotoxic to the plasma membrane. The neutral-red assay, an indicator of damage to lysosomal membranes, revealed that 0.5% (w/v) sodium caprate had no effect whereas the uptake of neutral red was slightly increased by treatment with 0.1% (w/v) sodium deoxycholate, implying that the compound had cell-growth-enhancing activity. Nuclear-membrane damage, as evaluated by the DNA-propidium iodide staining test, was severe in cell monolayers treated with 0.5% (w/v) sodium caprate compared with that induced by 0.1% (w/v) sodium deoxycholate. In the TEER recovery test, TEER failed to recover 24 h after treatment with 0.5% (w/v) sodium caprate and 0.1% (w/v) SDS, but recovered after treatment with 0.1% (w/v) sodium deoxycholate. The recovery of TEER might be related to nuclear membrane damage and cell-growth-enhancing activity. These results indicate that of the three classes of enhancer, dipotassium glycyrrhizinate was not cytotoxic and that high concentrations of sodium caprate and sodium deoxycholate could damage plasma and nuclear membranes.     

Biopharmaceutical Modeling of Drug Supersaturation During Lipid-Based Formulation Digestion Considering an Absorption Sink

Purpose

In vitro lipolysis is widely utilized for predicting in vivo performance of oral lipid-based formulations (LBFs). However, evaluation of LBFs in the absence of an absorption sink may have limited in vivo relevance. This study aimed at employing biopharmaceutical modeling to simulate LBF digestion and drug supersaturation in a continuous absorptive environment.

Methods

Three fenofibrate-loaded LBFs were characterized in vitro (dispersion and lipolysis) and drug precipitation was monitored using in-line Raman spectroscopy. In vitro data were combined with pharmacokinetic data derived from an in vivo study in pigs to simulate intestinal LBF transit. This biopharmaceutical model allowed calculation of lipolysis-triggered drug supersaturation while drug and lipolysis products are absorbed from the intestine.

Results

The biopharmaceutical model predicted that, in a continuous absorption environment, fenofibrate supersaturation was considerably lower compared to in vitro lipolysis (non-sink). Hence, the extensive drug precipitation observed in vitro was predicted to be unlikely in vivo. The absorption of lipolysis products increased drug supersaturation, but drug precipitation was unlikely for highly permeable drugs.

Conclusions

Biopharmaceutical modeling is a valuable approach for predicting LBFs performance in vivo. In the absence of in vitro tools simulating absorptive conditions, modeling strategies should be further considered.     

Classification of Drug Permeability with a Caco-2 Cell Monolayer Assay

In the absence of an optimized and validated protocol for the Caco-2 cell drug permeability assay, a more general approach is considered to standardize a method within a laboratory. An assay was evaluated using over 20 model drugs to assess its ability to classify drugs as high or low permeability. This cell culture method is considered to be useful as it established a relationship between experimental permeability values and extent of absorption. This represents an application of regulatory specifications to demonstrate that a cell model is able to determine the permeability class of a drug substance.     

芦丁在Caco-2细胞模型中吸收和外排机制的研究

利用Caco-2细胞模型研究芦丁在小肠上皮的摄取、跨膜转运及外排动力学机制,评价孵育时间、芦丁浓度、p-糖蛋白抑制剂环孢素A和多药耐药相关蛋白抑制剂维拉帕米对芦丁的细胞摄取与转运的影响.结果表明,药物摄取量与孵育时间、药物浓度呈正相关,环孢素A和维拉帕米对芦丁的细胞摄取量无显著影响(P＞0.05).不同浓度药物从基底侧(basolateral,BL)到肠腔侧(Apical,AP)的表观渗透系数Papp,BL-AP与AP到BL的Papp,AP-BL比值均在0.5～1.5.试验结果提示芦丁是以被动扩散为主要转运方式被小肠上皮细胞摄取和转运,且不受外排蛋白外排作用的影响.     

Analysis of Drug Permeation Across Caco-2 Monolayer: Implication for Predicting In Vivo Drug Absorption

Purpose. The aim of the present work is to characterize in vitro drug permeation processes across Caco-2 monolayer and to identify the advantages of this cultured cell system in predicting in vivo drug absorption after oral administration. Methods. The passive permeability of various drugs through Caco-2 monolayer was measured using Ussing-type chambers and compared with that of the isolated rat jejunum and colon. The in vivo drug permeability to the intestinal membrane was estimated by means of an intestinal perfusion study using the rat jejunum. Results. In Caco-2 monolayer, drug permeability increased with increasing drug lipophilicity and showed a good linear relationship with the in vivo permeability. In contrast, in the isolated jejunum and colon, the permeability of high lipophilic drugs was almost constant and, propranolol, a drug with the highest lipophilicity, hardly passed through the jejunal membrane in vitro. As a result, there was no significant relationship between in vitro and in vivo drug permeability in rat jejunum. However, the amount of drugs accumulated in the jejunal mucosa increased with increasing drug lipophilicity even under the in vitro condition. Conclusions. The permeation and the accumulation studies suggested that the rate-limiting process of in vitro permeation of lipophilic drugs through the intestinal membrane differs from that of in vivo drug absorption. On the other hand, drug permeation through Caco-2 monolayer, which consists of an epithelial cell layer and a supporting filter, is essentially the same process as that of in vivo drug absorption. We concluded that the simple monolayer structure of a cultured cell system provides a distinct advantage in predicting in vivo drug absorption.     

坤复康片中芍药内酯苷在Caco-2细胞模型中的吸收特征研究

目的 研究坤复康片中的芍药内酯苷在Caco-2细胞模型中的跨膜吸收特征,探讨人小肠对芍药内酯苷的吸收和转运。方法 研究了不同药物浓度、pH值、温度和抑制剂对芍药内酯苷在Transwell细胞培养板中从顶膜(apical,AP)到基底(basolateral,BL)的双向渗透吸收的影响。结果 芍药内酯苷以3种测试浓度给药时(5,20和100 μmol·L^-1),从AP到BL方向的表观渗透系数(P_app)值范围为(3.27~5.37)×10^-7 cm·s^-1。相反,从BL到AP,P_app值范围为(6.64~9.63)×10^-7 cm·s^-1。数据表明,芍药内酯苷转运具有pH和温度依赖性。芍药内酯苷的细胞通透性受多种抑制剂影响,包含Na⁺/K⁺离子通道抑制剂钒酸钠,多耐药蛋白抑制剂MK571和吲哚美辛及乳腺癌耐药蛋白抑制剂芹菜素。当坤复康溶液加入后,芍药内酯苷从AP到BL方向的P_app值显著增加。结论 芍药内酯苷在Caco-2细胞模型中的肠道吸收较差,其吸收机制可能涉及多种蛋白介导的主动转运。     

Design of Lipid-Based Formulations for Oral Administration of Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs: Precipitation of Drug after Dispersion of Formulations in Aqueous Solution

This study was designed to investigate the precipitation of a lipophilic drug following dispersion of lipid formulations in water. The model drug fenofibrate was formulated in representative lipid delivery systems designed for oral administration, using medium chain glycerides, polysorbates, and propylene glycol as excipients. Aqueous dispersion of water-insoluble self-emulsifying lipid formulations resulted in turbid emulsions, followed subsequently by very slow precipitation of 3–7% of the dose of fenofibrate. Self-emulsifying formulations that included water-soluble surfactants, which dissolved a lower mass of drug in solution at equilibrium, nevertheless typically maintained drugs in a metastable state, following dilution with water, for several hours or even days. Formulations with higher contents of hydrophilic materials resulted in more rapid precipitation. Extensive precipitation of fenofibrate from oil-free formulations, comprising of only surfactants and cosolvents, took place within 30 min. The results indicated that most of the lipid systems were supersaturated with respect to the drug on dilution, but the extent of precipitation varied significantly between formulations and was influenced by the extent of supersaturation after dilution. The study suggests that the use of hydrophilic formulations for delivery of lipophilic drugs may result in a greater extent of drug precipitation in the stomach. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc. and the American Pharmacists Association J Pharm Sci 98:3582–3595, 2009     

Comparison of HT29-18-C1 and Caco-2 Cell Lines as Models for Studying Intestinal Paracellular Drug Absorption

Purpose. To compare the permeability characteristics of HT29-18-C₁ colonic epithelial cell line with Caco-2, an established model of intestinal drug transport. Methods. Cell lines were grown as epithelial monolayers. Permeability was measured over a range of transepithelial electrical resistance (R_t) using a group of drug compounds. Results. HT29-18-C₁ develop R_t slowly when grown in culture, allowing permeability to be measured over a wide range (80–600 ·cm²). In contrast, Caco-2 monolayers rapidly develop R_t of 300 ·cm² and require Ca²⁺-chelation to generate R_t equivalent to human intestine (60–120 ·cm²). Permeability of atenolol, ranitidine, cimetidine, hydrochlorothiazide and mannitol across HT29-18-C₁ decreased 4–5 fold as R_t developed from 100–300 ·cm² indicating they permeate via the paracellular route. In contrast, ondansetron showed no difference in permeability with changing R_t consistent with transcellular permeation. Permeability profiles across low R_t HT29-18C₁ and pulse EGTA-treated Caco-2 monolayers were the same for all 5 paracellular drugs suggesting that transient Ca²⁺ removal does not alter selectivity of the tight junctions. Permeabilities of cimetidine, hydrochlorothiazide and atenolol across 100 ·cm² HT29-18-C₁ monolayers reflect more closely those reported for the human ileum in vivo than did mature Caco-2 monolayers. Conclusions. HT29-18-C₁ monolayers can be used to study drug permeability at R_t values similar to human intestine without the need for Ca²⁺ chelation. As such, they offer a useful alternative to Caco-2 for modelling intestinal drug absorption.     

Drug delivery studies in Caco-2 monolayers. II. Absorption enhancer effects of lysophosphatidylcholines

This paper concerns the mechanistic elucidation of a certain class of absorption enhancers within the group of phospholipids, lysophosphatidylcholines. The studies were performed in Caco-2 monolayers. Physico-chemical characteristics and effects on the integrity and viability of the Caco-2 monolayers were found to be correlated with the absorption promoting effects of the phospholipids. Comparing enhancers with varying size of the lipophilic moiety, the lipophilicity was shown to be of the utmost importance for all of the observed effects. As the chain length increased from 6 to 16 methylene groups, the effects measured on the monolayers were amplified. The acute effects were evaluated by various microscopic staining techniques as well as by transport studies. The transport rates of the vasopressin analogue 1-deamino-8-d-arginine-vasopressin (DDAVP) were determined as a measure of the monolayer integrity. Based on the apparent permeability coefficient, Papp, it could be concluded that phospholipid treatment increased DDAVP transport even under circumstances where the cell monolayer integrity was only slightly altered.