The functional role of the T1R family of receptors in sweet taste and feeding

The discovery of the T1R family of Class C G protein-coupled receptors in the peripheral gustatory system a decade ago has been a tremendous advance for taste research, and its conceptual reach has extended to other organ systems. There are three proteins in the family, T1R1, T1R2, and T1R3, encoded by their respective genes, Tas1r1, Tas1r2, and Tas1r3. T1R2 combines with T1R3 to form a heterodimer that binds with sugars and other sweeteners. T1R3 also combines with T1R1 to form a heterodimer that binds with l-amino acids. These proteins are expressed not only in taste bud cells, but one or more of these T1Rs have also been identified in the nasal epithelium, gut, pancreas, liver, kidney, testes and brain in various mammalian species. Here we review current perspectives regarding the functional role of these receptors, concentrating on sweet taste and feeding. We also discuss behavioral findings suggesting that a glucose polymer mixture, Polycose, which rodents avidly prefer, appears to activate a receptor that does not depend on the combined expression of T1R2 and T1R3. In addition, although the T1Rs have been implicated as playing a role in glucose sensing, T1R2 knock-out (KO) and T1R3 KO mice display normal chow and fluid intake as well as normal body weight compared with same-sex littermate wild type (WT) controls. Moreover, regardless of whether they are fasted or not, these KO mice do not differ from their WT counterparts in their Polycose intake across a broad range of concentrations in 30-minute intake tests. The functional implications of these results and those in the literature are considered.     

Unilateral nasal obstruction alters sweet taste preference and sweet taste receptors in rat circumvallate papillae

Nasal obstruction causes mouth breathing, and affects the growth and development of craniofacial structures, muscle function in the stomatognathic system, and the taste perceptive system. However, the detailed mechanism underlying the effects of nasal obstruction on taste perception has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we investigated this mechanism using the two-bottle taste preference test, immunohistological analysis, and quantification of the mRNA expression of taste-related molecules in the circumvallate papillae. Neonatal male Wistar rats were divided randomly into control and experimental groups. Rats in the experimental group underwent unilateral nasal obstruction by cauterization of the external nostril at the age of 8 days. Arterial oxygen saturation (SpO₂) was recorded in awake rats using collar clip sensors. Taste preference for five basic taste solutions was evaluated. Immunohistochemical analysis and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were conducted to evaluate the expressions of taste-related molecules in the taste cells of the circumvallate papillae. Body weights were similar between the two groups throughout the experimental period. The SpO₂ in the 7- to 12-week-old rats in the experimental group was significantly lower than that in the age-matched rats in the control group. In the two-bottle taste preference test, the sensitivities to sweet taste decreased in the experimental group. The mRNA expression of T1R2, T1R3, α-gustducin, and PLCβ2 was significantly lower in the experimental group than in the control group as determined by quantitative RT-PCR, and the immunohistochemical staining for α-gustducin and PLCβ2 was less prominent. These findings suggest that nasal obstruction may affect sweet taste perception via the reduced expression of taste-related molecules in the taste cells in rat circumvallate papillae.     

胰岛素和人参皂甙 Rg1对脂联素mRNA 表达的影响

目的:探讨不同浓度的胰岛素和人参皂甙Rg1对体外3T3-L1脂肪细胞脂联素(adiponectin) mRNA 表达的影响。方法:通过不同浓度胰岛素和Rg1与3T3-L1脂肪细胞共同培养，以β-actin为内对照，半定量逆转录PCR法测定脂联素 mRNA表达。结果:随着胰岛素浓度的升高，脂联素 mRNA 表达逐渐降低，在胰岛素浓度 ≥100 nmol/L 时具有显著差异（P<0.05）;40 mg/L Rg1能有效逆转高胰岛素对脂联素mRNA 表达的抑制作用（P<0.05）。结论:体外高胰岛素水平可使3T3-L1细胞脂联素表达下降，Rg1可逆转体外高胰岛素降低脂联素表达的作用。     

Glucose transporter/T1R3-expressing cells in rat tracheal epithelium

Glucose transport plays an important role in maintaining low sugar concentration in airway surface liquid (ASL), which is critical for mucociliary clearance and bacterial colonization. Experimental evidence indicates that glucose/hexose uptake in lung/airway cells occurs by means of two structurally distinct glucose transporter pathways: the Na(+) -dependent glucose transporters (SGLT family) and the facilitative glucose transporters (GLUT family). In this study, we examined the expression of the major glucose transporters of the intestine, GLUT2, GLUT5, SGLT1 and T1R3 taste receptor subunit, in the trachea of rats using immunohistochemistry and immunoelectron microscopy, and compared them using double-labeled confocal microscopy. We found that GLUT2, GLUT5, SGLT1 and T1R3 are selectively expressed in different cell types. T1R3 and GLUT2 are predominantly expressed in subsets of solitary chemoreceptor cells (SCCs) and ciliated cells, GLUT5 is present in subsets of SCCs and in secretory cells, and SGLT1 is exclusively expressed in a unique cell type, SCCs. Furthermore, we demonstrated that T1R3 is colocalized with SGLT1 in SCCs and with GLUT2 transporter in ciliated cells. In conclusion, these findings reveal that different cell types are associated with the uptake of glucose in ASL and that, due to their T1R3 expression, SCCs and ciliated cells are most likely to participate in the chemosensory process in ASL.     

Chronic mild restraint stress rats decreased CMKLR1 expression in distinct brain region

Inflammation contributes to the pathophysiology of depression. Chemokine-like receptor-1 (CMKLR1) plays an important role both in the development of inflammation and in the mechanism of antidepressant effect of Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Omega-3 PUFAs), ecosapeatanolicacid (EPA). The present study was to investigate the modification of CMKLR1 in chronic restraint stress (CRS) rats. CMKLR1 was examined in different brain region from CRS rats by using western blot and quantitative real-time PCR. The CMKLR1 expression in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and cerebellum was determined on 3, 7, 10 and 21 days of repeated restraint stress and was compared to controls. The results showed that the protein and mRNA level of CMKLR1 in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus were significantly increased on day 3 and then decreased on day 7, 10 and 21 in the CRS rats. The protein and mRNA level of CMKLR1 in cerebellum was similar to that of control group throughout the whole experiment. Changed expression of brain CMKLR1 is suggested to be involved in the mechanism of depression.     

Rotavirus-specific T cell responses and cytokine mRNA expression in children with diabetes-associated autoantibodies and type 1 diabetes

Rotavirus infections have been implicated as a possible trigger of type 1 diabetes. We elucidated this connection by comparing peripheral blood T cell responses to rotavirus between children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes (n = 43), healthy children with multiple diabetes-associated autoantibodies (n = 36) and control children carrying human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-conferred susceptibility to type 1 diabetes but without autoantibodies (n = 104). Lymphocyte proliferation assays based on stimulation with an antigen were performed using freshly isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and IgG and IgA class rotavirus antibodies were measured using plasma samples collected from the children. The expression of interferon (IFN)-gamma, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta in PBMC was studied with real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in a subgroup of 38 children. No differences were observed in the strength or frequency of positive T cell responses to rotavirus between children with overt diabetes, children with multiple autoantibodies and control children. Children with diabetes-associated autoantibodies had, instead, stronger T cell responses to purified coxsackie B4 virus than control children. Rotavirus-stimulated lymphocytes from autoantibody-positive children produced more IL-4 and phytohaemagglutinin (PHA)-stimulated lymphocytes more IL-4 and IFN-gamma than lymphocytes from control children. PHA-stimulated lymphocytes from children with diabetes also produced more IL-4 and purified protein derivative (PPD)-stimulated lymphocytes less TGF-beta than lymphocytes from autoantibody-negative control children. In conclusion, our lymphocyte proliferation studies did not provide evidence supporting an association between rotavirus infections and the development of type 1 diabetes or diabetes-associated autoantibodies in young children.     

Exendin-4可通过下调内质网应激信号标志蛋白表达改善3T3-L1脂肪细胞的胰岛素抵抗

目的:探讨胰高血糖素样肽-1(GLP-1)受体激动剂exendin-4对内质网应激(ERS)诱导剂衣霉素(TM)介导的3T3-L1脂肪细胞胰岛素抵抗(IR)的影响。方法:体外培养3T3-L1脂肪细胞,分别用TM、内质网应激抑制剂牛磺熊脱氧胆酸(TUDCA)及exendin-4进行干预,以MTT法检测不同干预条件下脂肪细胞的存活情况,以葡萄糖氧化酶法检测不同干预条件下脂肪细胞的葡萄糖消耗量情况,利用Western blot法检测不同干预条件下p-Akt、Akt及ERS关键信号标志蛋白肌醇需求蛋白1(IRE1)、p-IRE1、c-Jun末端激酶(JNK)、p-JNK、蛋白激酶R样内质网激酶(PERK)、p-PERK、真核生物翻译起始因子2的α亚单位(eIF2a)、p-eIF2a和转录激活因子(ATF)-6的蛋白水平。结果:单独TUDCA或exendin-4作用,可协同胰岛素作用,增加胰岛素刺激的脂肪细胞葡萄糖消耗量(P0.05)。TM(5 mg/L)作用5 h后可减少胰岛素刺激的3T3-L1脂肪细胞萄糖消耗量(P0.05)及p-Akt的蛋白水平(P0.05)。TUDCA(1 mmol/L)或exendin-4(100 nmol/L)预处理24 h后,均可拮抗TM对胰岛素刺激的3T3-L1脂肪细胞萄糖消耗量(P0.05)及p-Akt蛋白水平的改变(P0.05),二者效价相当。TM(5 mg/L)作用5 h后可显著提高ERS标志蛋白的表达。而exendin-4(100 nmol/L)预处理24 h后,可降低TM诱导的ERS标志蛋白的表达,其效价与应用内质网应激抑制剂TUDCA(1 mmol/L)预处理24 h相当。不同的处理因素对于总IRE1、JNK、PERK及eIF2a的表达情况并无显著性影响。结论:Exendin-4可改善内质网应激介导的3T3-L1脂肪细胞的胰岛素抵抗。     

慢性脑缺血大鼠脑OX1R表达的变化

目的：研究慢性脑缺血时脑食欲素受体-1（OX1R）的表达及其随缺血时间的变化。方法：通过结扎双侧颈总动脉建立慢性脑缺血模型，通过水迷宫对慢性脑缺血大鼠的行为学进行评价，免疫组化法观察OX1R的表达，双标免疫荧光进一步确定OX1R表达的定位。结果：缺血15d时大鼠的学习记忆能力明显减退，1月、2月较缺血15 d模型组的学习记忆能力有所好转。同时，从缺血急性期一直持续到15 d OX1R的表达明显增高，1月时OX1R的表达明显低于15d，2月时OX1R的表达再次增高。从组织学看：15d时部分细胞萎缩，1月时大部分细胞变形萎缩，2月时部分细胞形态恢复正常。双标免疫荧光证实OX1R确实在神经元有表达。结论：慢性缺血性脑损伤时OX1R的表达呈双相性变化,食欲素系统可能在缺血性脑损伤与修复过程中发挥一定的调节作用。     

蛋白激酶C对3T3-L1脂肪细胞抵抗素表达的影响

目的：观察蛋白激酶C转导途径对3T3-L1脂肪细胞抵抗素表达的影响。方法：3T3-L1脂肪细胞诱导分化为成熟的脂肪细胞后，分别于培养瓶中加入浓度为50 nmol/L的12-肉豆蔻酰-13-乙酸佛波酯（PMA）和浓度为5 μmol/L马来酰亚胺甲磺酸盐(Ro-31-8220)，培养24 h，用RT-PCR的方法检测3T3-L1脂肪细胞抵抗素mRNA的表达，用Western blotting检测3T3-L1脂肪细胞抵抗素表达结果：PMA组可以明显提高3T3-L1脂肪细胞抵抗素基因及蛋白的表达，明显高于对照组，两者的差异显著（P<0.01）；Ro-31-8220组其表达低于对照组，两者的差异显著（P<0.01）。结论：蛋白激酶C转导途径可以调控3T3-L1脂肪细胞抵抗素的表达。     

创伤后应激障碍模型大鼠杏仁核COX及Caspase 3 mRNA表达的变化

目的观察创伤后应激障碍(PTSD)大鼠杏仁核神经元细胞色素氧化酶(COX)及Caspase 3 mRNA的表达变化,进一步认识PTSD行为异常的神经生物学机制。方法采用国际认定的连续单一刺激(single prolonged stress,SPS)方法建立大鼠PTSD模型,取成年健康雄性Wister大鼠40只,随机均分为PTSD模型的1d、4d、7d组及正常对照组。应用酶组化检测COX的表达,采用逆转录-聚合酶链式反应(RT-PCR)技术检测细胞色素氧化酶II亚基(COII)及Caspase 3 mRNA在PTSD杏仁核神经元的表达。结果PTSD大鼠杏仁核神经元细胞质内COX活性和COII mRNA表达水平明显低于正常对照组,SPS7d时最低。Caspase 3 mRNA表达于SPS刺激后逐渐上调,于SPS7d时表达最高。结论创伤后应激障碍模型大鼠杏仁核COX,COII及Caspase 3可能与PTSD的发病机制有关。     

Smad7过度表达抑制3T3细胞增殖和TGF-β1基因表达

研究Smad7过度表达对TGF β1基因表达的调控和对 3T3细胞增殖的影响。实验将Smad7质粒 ,通过脂质体介导转染NIH3T3细胞 ,应用RT PCR方法鉴定转染结果和检测TGF β1mRNA的表达 ,以及用免疫细胞化学检测TGF β1蛋白的表达情况 ,并观察基因转染对细胞增殖的影响。结果显示转染Smad7后 ,NIH3T3细胞中TGF β1mRNA的表达显著减少 (P <0 0 5 ) ,TGF β1蛋白的表达下降 ,细胞增殖明显减缓 (P <0 0 5 )。提示Smad7过度表达能够抑制 3T3细胞的增殖和TGF β1基因的表达 ,可以通过阻断TGF β细胞内信号传导来调控TGF β1的生物学行为。     

IL-21R expression on CD8+ T cells promotes CD8+ T cell activation in coxsackievirus B3 induced myocarditis

IL-21 is a multi-functional cytokine which can promote survival, proliferation and activation of T and B lymphocytes including CD8 T cells. Previous studies have shown that autoimmune CD8+ T cells are the primary pathogenic effector cell in coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) induced myocarditis in C57Bl/6 mice. To evaluate the role of IL-21 in promoting CD8+ T cell mediated cardiac injury in myocarditis, C57Bl/6 and IL-21RKO mice were infected with CVB3. IL-21RKO mice developed significantly less myocarditis than C57Bl/6 animals although cardiac virus titers were equivalent between the mouse strains. Numbers of CD8+IFNγ+ cells were decreased in IL-21RKO mice but numbers of either CD4+IFNγ+ or CD4+IL-4+ cells were not significantly different from C57Bl/6 animals indicating a selective effect of IL-21 signaling on the CD8+ T cell response. To confirm that IL-21 signaling exclusively functions at the level of the CD8+ T cell in CVB3 induced myocarditis, purified CD8+ cells were isolated from either C57Bl/6 or IL-21RKO donors and adoptively transferred into CD8KO recipients prior to CVB3 infection. CD8KO recipients given either C57Bl/6 or IL-21RKO CD8+ cells showed equivalent reconstitution of the CD8+ cells in the spleen but the recipients given C57Bl/6 CD8+ cells showed significantly greater myocarditis than recipients of IL-21RKO CD8+ cells. These data demonstrate that IL-21 signaling directly in the CD8+ cell population is required for CVB3-induced myocarditis.     

In vivo brain-derived neurotrophic factor release and tyrosine kinase B receptor expression in the supraoptic nucleus after osmotic stress stimulus in rats

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a member of the neurotrophin family involved in plasticity and neuroprotective processes. In recent years, we have reported the presence of BDNF mRNA in the supraoptic nucleus (SON) as well its sensitivity to osmotic stress. The rat SON is a relatively homogenous nucleus mainly consisting of magnocellular soma with their dendritic processes. BDNF may be released from dendrites to the extracellular space to stimulate tyrosine kinase (Trk) B receptors which are hypothetically present on these subcellular SON compartments. The main goal of this work was thus to study the presence and the in vivo BDNF-IR release from SON using the push-pull perfusion technique following systemic (i.p.) or local (within the SON) osmotic stimulation. BDNF was detected by immunocytochemistry and its release was measured by immunological assay (ELISA). Likewise, TrkB receptor localization in the SON-mRNA and their respective proteins-were studied by in situ hybridization and immunohistofluorescence techniques, respectively. Phosphorylation of CREB was detected by immunohistofluorescence. We present here direct evidence of in vivo dendritic BDNF release from SON which is highly sensitive to osmotic stress. The osmotic response latency period clearly depends on the mode of stimulus application (210 min for i.p. route vs. 15 min for intra-SON administration). The fact that BDNF is released as a very rapid peak when osmotic stimulation is locally applied is strong evidence in favor of an intra-SON origin of this secretion. Osmotic stress also increased phosphorylated cAMP response element binding protein immunoreactivity in the SON. In addition, we show in control rats that truncated forms of tyrosine kinase B receptor 2 mRNA represent the most abundant messenger in the SON as compared with brain-derived neurotrophic factor full-length catalytic receptor or truncated forms of tyrosine kinase B receptor 1 mRNA. In conclusion, it is likely that BDNF and their receptors are involved in neuronal plasticity changes induced by osmotic stress in the SON.     

Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 Counterregulates Interleukin-18 mRNA and Protein in MC3T3-E1 Mouse Osteoblastic Cells

Fibroblast growth factors-2 (FGF-2) and bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) are two of the main factors that regulate differentiation of osteoblasts. Interleukin-18 (IL-18), originally cloned as an interferon γ-inducing factor, has been reported to inhibit maturation of osteoclasts by upregulation of osteoprotegerin secreted from osteoblasts. Little is known about the functional relationship between IL-18 and the two growth factors in osteoblast differentiation. To better understand this relationship, we analyzed the effect of BMP-2 and FGF-2 on the mRNA expression levels of IL-18, as well as IL-1α and IL-6, in MC3T3-E1 mouse osteoblastic cells. Following this, the effects of BMP-2 on the expression of IL-18 protein and caspase-1 protein were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining. Real-time PCR and immunofluorescence staining analysis showed that FGF-2 had no effect on the expression of IL-18 mRNA and protein, but while BMP-2 reduced IL-18 mRNA levels, increased immunostaining of both IL-18 protein and caspase-1 protein was detected in BMP-2-treated MC3T3-E1 cells. Although the significance and mechanisms of this counterregulation of IL-18 mRNA and protein were not determined in this study, the increase of IL-18 protein suggested that BMP-2 may induce an active form of IL-18.     

CTRP3下调炎症因子表达改善胰岛素抵抗的3T3-L1脂肪细胞胰岛素敏感性

 目的:观察脂肪因子C1q/TNF相关蛋白3（CTRP3）对胰岛素抵抗的3T3-L1脂肪细胞胰岛素敏感性的效应及机制。方法:通过软脂酸培养构建3T3-L1脂肪细胞胰岛素抵抗模型,以不同浓度重组CTRP3蛋白（10、50、250、1 250 μg/L）干预12 h,以及250 μg/L CTRP3干预不同时间（2、6、12、24 h）,以葡萄糖氧化酶法检测葡萄糖消耗量,以2-脱氧-［3H］-葡萄糖摄入法检测葡萄糖转运率,以酶联免疫吸附（ELISA）法检测上清中肿瘤坏死因子α（TNF-α）及白细胞介素6（IL-6）的含量,以荧光实时定量PCR（real-time PCR）检测TNF-α、IL-6及葡萄糖转运子4（GLUT-4）的mRNA表达水平,以Western blotting检测GLUT-4蛋白表达水平。结果:与正常对照组（NC）相比,胰岛素抵抗组（IR）葡萄糖摄取率及葡萄糖消耗量分别降低了50.6%及57.9%（均P<0.01）;与IR组相比,干预组随CTRP3浓度增加,葡萄糖消耗量分别增加22.1%、42.9%、76.6%及80.5%（均P<0.01）,葡萄糖摄取率分别增加39.0%、68.0%、108.0%及111.0%（均P<0.01）;250 μg/L CTRP3干预时间增加,葡萄糖摄取率分别增加23.0%、79.0%、 109.0%及114.0%（均P<0.01）;250 μg/L CTRP3干预12 h,上清中的TNF-α及IL-6浓度分别降低了17.4%及17.1%（均P<0.01）,其mRNA相对表达量分别下降了26.0%及18.9%（均P<0.01）,而GLUT-4 mRNA及蛋白相对表达量分别增加了61.5%及55.6%（均P<0.01）。结论: CTRP3具有改善胰岛素抵抗的3T3-L1脂肪细胞胰岛素敏感性的作用,其机制可能与下调炎症因子表达、改善胰岛素信号转导和增加葡萄糖转运子表达等有关。     

A developmental study on the expression of PDGFαR immunoreactive cells in the brain of postnatal rats

The platelet-derived growth factor-α receptor (PDGFαR) has been found specifically expressed in oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), whereas another membrane protein, NG2, has been widely applied to characterize developing and matured OPCs. In order to investigate whether PDGFαR expression is consistent to NG2 in identifying OPCs, we utilized techniques of immunohistochemistry and Western blot to study the PDGFαR expression and distribution in rat postnatal brain from a series of ages P0 (postnatal day 0) to P540, and further compared it with NG2. Results showed that PDGFαR immunoreactive (PDGFαR+) cells existed in both the gray and white matter of the postnatal rat brain, although these cells displayed different features in distinct regions and developmental stages. PDGFαR did not express in oligodendrocytes, astrocytes or neurons (indicated by non-co-localization with CC1 and NF200, respectively). Western blot analysis revealed that the expression of PDGFαR in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus increased from P0 to P7 and then decreased gradually. PDGFαR+ cells displayed similar characteristics as of NG2+ cells in the morphology, distribution and electrophysiology. Like NG2+ cells, the density of PDGFαR+ cells had an increase at P7 and a late age-dependent decline, except a lower value from P7 to P540 in cerebral cortex, hippocampus and corpus callosum. PDGFαR+ cells exhibited number consistent with NG2+ cells at early developmental stages and were approximately 75% as numerous as NG2+ cells at old age. PDGFαR+/NG2− cells were not found. In conclusion, our findings suggest that both PDGFαR and NG2 are markers of developing OPCs. PDGFαR is specific to the NG2+ OPCs and mainly plays an important role at early developmental stages of OPCs. Aging had an effect on the morphological feature, number and developmental regulation of OPCs in rat CNS. However, further work will be necessary to determine if PDGFαR−/NG2+ cells may still maintain the biological characteristics of OPCs or they are other subpopulation of OPCs.     

Inhibition of R5‐tropic HIV type‐1 replication in CD4+ natural killer T cells by γδ T lymphocytes

After the development of highly active anti‐retroviral therapy, it became clear that the majority of emergent HIV‐1 is macrophage‐tropic and infects CD4⁺, CCR5‐expressing cells (R5‐tropic). There are three distinct cell populations, R5‐tropic, HIV‐1‐susceptible CD4⁺ cells: (i) natural killer T (NKT) cells, (ii) dendritic cells and macrophages, and (iii) tissue‐associated T cells residing primarily at mucosal surfaces. We have confirmed that CD4⁺ NKT cells derived from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) predominantly express CCR5 rather than CXCR4, whereas the reverse is true for CD4⁺ T cells derived from circulating PBMCs, and that R5‐tropic HIV‐1 expands efficiently in the CD4⁺ NKT cells. Moreover, when PBMCs depleted of CD8α⁺ cells were stimulated in the presence of α‐galactosylceramide (α‐GalCer) and R5‐tropic HIV‐1 [NL(AD8)], the production of HIV‐1 virions was not suppressed, whereas, similar to the untreated PBMCs, depletion of CD8β⁺ cells from PBMCs significantly inhibited virion production. These findings suggest that CD8αα⁺ but not CD8αβ⁺ cells may have the ability to inhibit R5‐tropic HIV‐1 replication in CD4⁺ NKT cells. Here, we show that co‐culturing R5‐tropic HIV‐1‐infected CD4⁺ NKT cells with CD8αα⁺ γδ T cells, in particular Vγ1Vδ1 cells, but not with CD8αα⁺ NKT cells or CD8αα⁺ dendritic cells, inhibits HIV‐1 replication mainly by secreting chemokines, such as macrophage inflammatory proteins 1α and 1β and RANTES. Collectively, these results indicate the importance of CD8αα⁺ γδ T cells in the control of R5‐tropic HIV‐1 replication and persistence in CD4⁺ NKT cells.     

A major transcript of human papillomavirus type 16 in transformed NIH 3T3 cells contains polycistronic mRNA encoding E7, E5, and E1^E4 fusion gene

We have cloned cDNA of the major 1.8 kb mRNA from HPV 16-transformed NIH 3T3 cells (PM3T3). The entire nucleotide sequences of this cDNA were determined and compared with prototype HPV 16 genomic DNA sequences. The 5'-end of the cDNA was flanked by approximately 300 bp of cellular sequences, and the 3'-end of the cDNA sequences contained poly A residues following at nt 4230. HPV 16 sequences began at nt 124, downstream of a major viral p97 promoter, within the E6 open reading frame (ORF). The first splice donor site was at nt 226 and the splice acceptor site was at nt 409, suggesting that the E6 gene is inert. Second splice donor and acceptor sites were located at nt 880 and at nt 3357, respectively. This mRNA was thus shown to consist of three exons, resulting in polycistronic mRNA containing three potentially functional virus early genes--E7, E1--E4, and E5--actively transcribed in the transformant.