Select Food Group Intake of US Children Aged 2 to 4 Years by WIC Participation Status and Income

BackgroundFood group and nutrient priorities for Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) Food Package IV for children aged 2 to 4 years were described in the 2017 review of the WIC Food Package. Research has evaluated priority nutrient intake, but priority food group intake remains unknown.ObjectivesTo compare mean intake of priority food groups/subgroups of WIC children to WIC-eligible nonparticipants and higher income children. Further, we hoped to assess differences in percent contribution of food subgroups to total food group intake by WIC participation status and income.DesignCross-sectional study conducted using data from the 2011-14 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.Participants/settingOne thousand forty-seven children aged 2 to 4 years.Main outcome measuresMean intake reported in cup equivalents and ounce equivalents. We also looked at mean percent that food subgroups contributed to total intake within a food group. Analyses were performed for high and low priority food groups/subgroups: high = seafood, total vegetables, dark green vegetables, red/orange vegetables, whole grains, and nuts/seeds/soy; low = total starchy vegetables, other vegetables, legumes computed as vegetables, total dairy, and total protein foods.Statistical analyses performedMultivariable linear regression analysis was used evaluate the relationship between income/WIC participation and mean intake/percent food subgroups contributed to total food group intake.ResultsAmong low-income WIC-eligible children, participation in WIC was associated with greater mean intake of red/orange vegetables (0.18 ± 0.03 vs 0.01 ± 0.06 c equivalents; P < 0.05) and legumes (0.07 ± 0.01 vs 0.01 ± 0.02 c equivalents; P < 0.01). No differences in mean intake were observed between WIC children and higher income children. Grain intake of WIC children was composed of a higher percentage of whole grains (19.1% ± 1.6% vs 13.2% ± 1.5%; P < 0.01) compared with higher income children. The percent vegetable subgroups contributed to total vegetable intake varied by income; no differences were observed for dairy or protein subgroups.ConclusionsAmong low-income children, participation in WIC was associated with greater intake of certain vegetables. Participation in WIC may also help close the diet quality gap between low-income and higher income children for priority foods targeted by the WIC food package. Future research should explore socioeconomic disparities in intake of nutrient-poor foods.     

A nutrition and physical activity intervention promotes weight loss and enhances diet attitudes in low-income mothers of young children

The purpose of this study was to evaluate a nutrition and physical activity program for reducing body weight and improving nutrition attitudes in mothers of young children. A convenience sample of 114 intervention mothers and 33 comparison mothers was recruited from public health clinics and community centers. Eligibility criteria included Hispanic, African American, or white ethnicity; body mass index of at least 25 kg/m²; low income (<200% of the federal poverty index); and youngest child aged 1 to 4 years. For intervention participants, height, weight, percentage of body fat, waist circumference, demographics, nutrition attitudes, and dietary intake were measured at weeks 0 and 8; height, weight, percentage of body fat, and waist circumference were reassessed at 6 months. Overweight mothers in the comparison group provided anthropometric and demographic data at weeks 0 and 8. Changes in anthropometrics, attitudes, and dietary intake were evaluated in intervention mothers. Anthropometric data of intervention vs comparison group mothers were examined. Differences in anthropometrics and attitude scores between weight loss responders (≥2.27 kg) and nonresponders (<2.27 kg) were assessed at week 8. Intervention participants lost weight (x = −2.7 kg; P < .001), whereas comparison mothers gained a slight amount of weight (x= 0.1 kg) by week 8. Weight loss responders had healthier eating attitudes (5.6 vs 5.2; P < .01) and fewer perceived barriers (2.4 vs 2.9; P < .05) than nonresponders postintervention. In conclusion, this dietary and physical activity curriculum is a valuable resource for weight management programs serving low-income women.     

The healthfulness of food and beverage purchases after the federal food package revisions: The case of two New England states

ObjectiveIn 2009, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) implemented new food packages to improve dietary intake among WIC participants. This paper examines how the healthfulness of food purchases among low-income households changed following this reform.MethodsPoint-of-sale data for 2137 WIC-participating and 1303 comparison households were obtained from a regional supermarket chain. The healthfulness of purchased foods and beverages was determined per their saturated fat, sugar, and sodium content. A pre-post assessment (2009–2010) of the product basket healthfulness was completed using generalized estimating equation models. Data were analyzed in 2015.ResultsAt baseline, healthy products accounted for most of the food volume purchased by WIC participants, but beverages were dominated by moderation (less healthy) items. With new subsidies for fruit, vegetables and whole grains, the WIC revisions increased the volume of healthy food purchases of WIC-participating households by 3.9% and reduced moderation foods by 1.8%. The biggest improvements were reductions in moderation beverages (down by 24.7% in volume), driven by milk fat restrictions in the WIC food package revisions. The healthfulness of the product basket increased post-WIC revisions; mainly due to a reduction in the volume of moderation food and beverages purchased (down by 15.5%) rather than growth in healthy products (up by 1.9%). No similar improvements were seen in a comparison group of low-income nonparticipants.ConclusionsAfter the WIC revisions, the healthfulness of participant purchases improved, particularly for beverages. Efforts to encourage healthy eating by people receiving federal food assistance are paying off.     

Positive influence of the revised Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children food packages on access to healthy foods

BackgroundThe Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) has important potential for preventing diet-related disease in low-income children. WIC food packages were recently revised to offer foods that better reflect dietary recommendations for Americans.ObjectiveThis article reports on how implementation of the new healthier WIC food packages affected access of low-income populations to healthy foods (eg, whole grains, fruit and vegetables, and lower-fat milk).DesignA pre–post store inventory was completed using a standardized instrument to assess availability, variety, quality and prices of WIC-approved foods (65 food items). Stores were assessed before (spring 2009) and shortly after the new WIC package implementation (spring 2010).Participants/settingAll convenience stores and nonchain grocery stores located in five towns of Connecticut (N=252), including 33 WIC-authorized stores and 219 non-WIC stores.Statistical analyses performedThe healthy food supply score was constructed to summarize postrevision changes in availability, variety, prices of healthy foods, and produce quality. The effect of the WIC food package revisions was measured by differential changes in the scores for stores authorized to accept WIC benefits and stores not participating in WIC, including differences by neighborhood income. Multivariate multilevel regression models were estimated.ResultsThe 2009 introduction of the revised WIC food packages has significantly improved availability and variety of healthy foods in WIC-authorized and (to a smaller degree) non-WIC convenience and grocery stores. The increase in the composite score of healthy food supply varied from 16% in WIC convenience and grocery stores in higher-income neighborhoods to 39% in lower-income areas. Improved availability and variety of whole-grain products were responsible for most of the increase in the composite score of healthy food supply.ConclusionsDesigned as cost-neutral changes, the WIC food package revisions have improved access to healthy foods for WIC participants and society at large.     

Prenatal WIC Is Associated with Increased Birth Weight of Infants Born in the United States with Immigrant Mothers

BackgroundThe Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) improves health outcomes for participating mothers and children. Recent immigration policy changes increased chilling effects on WIC access and utilization. Associations between WIC participation and neonatal outcomes among infants born to immigrant parents—23% of all births in the United States—are understudied.ObjectiveOur aim was to examine relationships between prenatal participation in WIC and birth weight among infants of income-eligible immigrant mothers.DesignThe study design was repeat cross-sectional in-person surveys.Participants/settingParticipants were 9,083 immigrant mothers of publicly insured or uninsured US-born children younger than 48 months accessing emergency departments or primary care in Baltimore, MD; Boston, MA; Little Rock, AR; Minneapolis, MN; and Philadelphia, PA interviewed from 2007 through 2017.Main outcome measuresOutcomes were mean birth weight (in grams) and low birth weight (<2,500 g).Statistical analysesMultivariable linear regression assessed associations between prenatal WIC participation and mean birth weight; multivariable logistic regression examined association between prenatal WIC participation and low birth weight.ResultsMost of the immigrant mothers (84.6%) reported prenatal WIC participation. Maternal ethnicities were as follows: 67.4% were Latina, 27.0% were Black non-Latina, 2.2% were White non-Latina, and 3.5% were other/multiple races non-Latina. Infants of prenatal WIC-participant immigrant mothers had higher adjusted mean birth weight (3,231.1 g vs 3,149.8 g; P < .001) and lower adjusted odds of low birth weight (adjusted odds ratio 0.79, 95% CI 0.65 to 0.97; P = .02) compared with infants of nonparticipants. Associations were similar among groups when stratified by mother’s length of stay in United States.ConclusionsPrenatal WIC participation for income-eligible immigrant mothers is associated with healthier birth weights among infants born in the United States, including for those who arrived most recently.     

Associations Between Preterm Birth,Low Birth Weight,and Postpartum Health in a Predominantly Hispanic WIC Population

ObjectiveTo describe the postpartum health of predominantly Hispanic participants in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) and identify how health characteristics differ between mothers who delivered preterm or low birth weight infants and those who did not.DesignCross-sectional survey among postpartum WIC mothers.SettingLos Angeles and Orange Counties, CA.ParticipantsWIC participants within 1 year of delivery (n = 1,420).Main Outcome MeasuresPostpartum health behaviors, health characteristics, and birth spacing intentions and behaviors.AnalysisFrequencies of health characteristics were estimated using analyses with sample weights. Differences were assessed with chi-square and Fisher exact tests with Bonferroni correction for pairs of tests.ResultsMany women exhibited postpartum risk factors for future adverse health events, including overweight or obesity (62.3%), depressive symptoms (27.5%), and no folic acid supplementation (65.5%). Most characteristics did not differ significantly (P > .025) between mothers of preterm infants and full-term infants or between mothers of low birth weight and normal birth weight infants.Conclusions and ImplicationsDespite few differences between postpartum characteristics of mothers who delivered preterm or low birth weight infants and those who did not, a high percentage of mothers had risk factors that need to be addressed. Current postpartum educational activities of WIC programs should be evaluated and shared.     

Overweight Among Low-income Texas Preschoolers Aged 2 to 4 Years

ObjectiveDetermine child/maternal factors associated with overweight among 2- to 4-year-olds enrolled in the Texas Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC).DesignMatched child and maternal data collected by self-report of the mother during WIC certification. These data were extracted from existing statewide WIC databases and merged.SettingTexas WIC children aged 2 to 4 years in April 2006.ParticipantsFinal sample was 22,837 mother–child dyads.Main Outcome MeasureDependent variable—child overweight; independent variables: Child-related—gender, age, race/ethnicity, Medicaid status, living area, and dental problems; Maternal-related—certification status, age, times certified, overweight, high maternal weight gain, and gestational diabetes.AnalysisBivariate relationships at P < .05 were included in the logistic regression.ResultsLiving in a nonborder urban area associated with greater odds of overweight compared to living in a border area. Mother's overweight, high gestational weight gain, and gestational diabetes associated with greater odds of child overweight.Conclusions and ImplicationsSeveral child- and maternal-related factors were found to be associated with overweight in Texas WIC preschoolers. Health interventions should target 4-year-old Hispanic children living in nonborder urban areas and mothers who are overweight, have high gestational weight gain, or have gestational diabetes.     

Food Insecurity and Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption Among WIC-Enrolled Families in the First 1,000 Days

ObjectiveDetermine the association between household food insecurity and habitual sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption among Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)–enrolled families during the first 1,000 days.MethodsCross-sectional analysis of pregnant women and mothers of infants aged under 2 years in the WIC was performed. Families recruited sequentially at consecutive visits completed food insecurity and beverage intake questionnaires; estimated logistic regression models controlled for sociodemographic characteristics.ResultsOf 394 Hispanic/Latino mothers and 281 infants, 63% had household food insecurity. Food insecurity significantly increased odds of habitual maternal (unadjusted odds ratio (OR), 2.39; 95% CI, 1.27–4.47; P = .01) and infant SSB consumption (OR, 2.05; 95% CI, 1.15–3.65; P = .02), and the relationship was not attenuated by maternal age, education, or foreign-born status.Conclusions and ImplicationsFood insecurity increased odds of habitual SSB consumption in WIC families. Interventions to curb SSB consumption among WIC-enrolled families in the first 1,000 days in the context of household food insecurity are needed.     

Predicting Intentions to Continue Exclusive Breastfeeding for 6 Months: a Comparison Among Racial/Ethnic Groups

The purpose of this study was to explore how mothers of different races/ethnicities make decisions to continue exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) for 6 months under the Theory of Planned Behavior. Participants were recruited from hospitals and WIC clinics in Central Indiana and Southern New Jersey from 2008 to 2009. Mothers (N = 236: 93 non-Hispanic African American, 72 non-Hispanic white, 71 Hispanic/Latina) completed a self-administered questionnaire that measured theoretical constructs and beliefs related to their intention to practice EBF for 6 months. Intentions to continue EBF for 6 months were similar (P = 0.15) across racial/ethnic groups. Significant proportions of the intention (P < 0.001) were explained by the three theoretical constructs (attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control). The relative importance of each construct in predicting the intention varied by group. The most influential predictors (P < 0.001) were attitude for white mothers, subjective norm for African American mothers, and perceived behavioral control for Latina mothers. Latent beliefs strongly associated with attitude in white mothers were ‘bonding with the baby’ and ‘easy feeding.’ Beliefs held by family members and the general public contributed to the subjective norm of African American mothers. Perceived behavioral control in Latina mothers was highly correlated with ‘pumping breast milk’. Development of policy and intervention programs that focus on shaping strong predictors and beliefs within racial/ethnic groups could reduce disparities in EBF rates and establish EBF for 6 months as a cultural norm.     

Determinants of Breastfeeding Initiation and Duration Among African American DC WIC Recipients: Perspectives of Recent Mothers

BackgroundIn Washington, DC, African American women receiving the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) benefits have the lowest breastfeeding rates compared with other WIC-eligible populations.ObjectivesThe purpose of this research was to use the social cognitive theory and elements of social support as a guiding framework to better understand the factors affecting breastfeeding initiation and duration among African American WIC recipients in low-income areas of Washington, DC.MethodsSemistructured interviews were conducted with 24 women receiving WIC services in DC to learn about their infant feeding practices and decisions. Using a pragmatic approach, an integrated inductive and deductive coding strategy was used.ResultsBreastfeeding experiences were influenced by barriers at multiple levels: community (i.e., perceptions of breastfeeding in one's network), interpersonal (i.e., few supportive providers), and individual constraints (i.e., pain, supply, and latching issues) as well as environmental difficulties of finding resources to help overcome these challenges. Social support from a close family member, friend, or partner often helped to minimize many of these barriers and facilitated breastfeeding.ConclusionsSocial support seems to bolster efficacy and help women to overcome various barriers to breastfeeding in their immediate environment; however, social support from providers was limited. WIC offers recipients in DC many helpful breastfeeding resources. Although several respondents were aware of these resources, overall use in the sample was low. Continued outreach may help further facilitate breastfeeding in African American mothers by providing additional sources of social support.     

Diet quality varies by race/ethnicity of Head Start mothers

BACKGROUND: Despite the key role that women from limited income families play as family food providers and their high risk for diet-related chronic diseases, there is a paucity of data about their diet quality and how it might vary by race/ethnicity. OBJECTIVE: To compare nutrient and food intakes of multiethnic mothers with children in Head Start from Texas and Alabama. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, secondary data analysis. METHODS: The sample was 603 mothers, 33% Hispanic American from Texas; 19% African American from Texas; 24% African American from Alabama; and 24% white from Alabama who were interviewed from fall 2004 to spring 2005. Diet quality was evaluated by averaging 24-hour dietary recalls from 3 nonconsecutive days and calculating the percent meeting the Estimated Average Requirement, the Dietary Guidelines for fat and added sugar, and the mean adequacy ratio for eight nutrients. For multiple comparisons, the least square means statement was used for general linear model procedures, adjusted for age, body mass index, and energy intake. RESULTS: The average mean adequacy ratio scores for diet quality were low overall, but 44% of Hispanic Americans had mean adequacy ratio scores <85, whereas 96% to 97% of other groups did. Most mothers exceeded 35% of energy from fat, with Hispanic Americans having the lowest percentage. Overall, 15% of mothers exceeded 25% of energy from added sugars, with Hispanic Americans having 5% with excess intakes. Energy intakes were highest for Hispanic Americans (2,017 kcal) and lowest for African Americans (1,340 kcal). The Hispanic Americans surveyed averaged 4.6 c fruit and vegetables per day compared to 3.2, 2.3, and 2.9 c/day among African Americans from Texas, African Americans from Alabama, and whites from Alabama, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Despite limited food resources, Hispanic-American mothers consumed adequate amounts of fruit and vegetables. There was considerable variation in diet quality among race/ethnic groups on a low income budget.     

Low-income, overweight and obese mothers as agents of change to improve food choices, fat habits, and physical activity in their 1-to-3-year-old children

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of a weight loss program for mothers on the diet and activity of mothers and their 1-3 year old children. DESIGN: Overweight and obese mothers participated in an 8-week weight loss intervention encompassing diet, physical activity, and behavioral modification. Anthropometrics, demographic, dietary, and physical activity questionnaires were administered at weeks 0 and 8; anthropometrics were re-evaluated at week 24. SUBJECTS: Mothers (N=91) of a 1-3 year old child; body mass index (BMI) >or= 25 kg/m2; non-breastfeeding; age 18-45 years; income < 200% of federal poverty index; Hispanic, African American, or white; and English-speaking were recruited from Special Supplemental Program for Women Infants and Children (WIC) and public health clinics. INTERVENTION MEASURES OF OUTCOME: Weight loss in mothers and improvements in diet (reduction in calories, fat, snacks/desserts, sweetened beverages, and increases in fruit, vegetables) and activity in mothers and children. RESULTS: Weight loss in mothers was modest (-2.7 kg, p < 0.001) and sustained at week 24 (-2.8 kg, p < 0.001), and children gained in height and weight as expected for normal growth (p < 0.001). Initial energy intakes of children exceeded Estimated Energy Requirements (123%) and were reduced to acceptable levels post-intervention (102%, p < 0.001); additional beneficial changes in children's diets were decreased total (47.7 to 39.9 g/day) and saturated fat (19.2 to 16.6 g/day), high-fat snacks/desserts (1.6 to 0.9 servings/day), added fats (81.8 to 40.9% using), sweetened beverages (0.8 to 0.4 servings/day), and fast food consumption (11.6 to 6.6% of meals), and increased home-prepared meals (63.2 to 71.6% of meals) (p < 0.01 for all). Physical activity scores improved by 7% in children (p < 0.05). Comparable changes in food choices and activity also were seen in mothers. CONCLUSION: Offering weight loss classes was a successful method of enticing low-income women to participate in an educational intervention that benefited their children. Overweight and obese mothers who modified their food choices and fat habits made comparable changes for their child.     

Sexual Risk Behaviors among African-American and Hispanic Women in Five Counties in the Southeastern United States: 2008–2009

PurposeWe examined sexual risk behaviors and unrecognized HIV infection among heterosexually active African-American and Hispanic women.MethodsWomen not previously diagnosed with HIV infection were recruited in rural counties in North Carolina (African American) and Alabama (African American), and an urban county in southern Florida (Hispanic) using multiple methods. They completed a computer-administered questionnaire and were tested for HIV infection.ResultsBetween October 2008 and September 2009, 1,527 women (1,013 African American and 514 Hispanic) enrolled in the study. Median age was 35 years (range, 18–59), 33% were married or living as married, 50% had an annual household income of $12,000 or less, and 56% were employed full or part time. Two women (0.13%) tested positive for HIV. In the past 12 months, 19% had been diagnosed with a sexually transmitted infection (other than HIV), 87% engaged in unprotected vaginal intercourse (UVI), and 26% engaged in unprotected anal intercourse (UAI). In multivariate analysis, UAI was significantly (p < .05) more likely among those who reported ever being pregnant, binge drinking in the past 30 days, ever exchanging sex for things needed or wanted, engaging in UVI, or being of Hispanic ethnicity. UAI was also more likely to occur with partners with whom women had a current or past relationship as opposed to casual partners.ConclusionA high percentage of our sample of heterosexually active women of color had recently engaged in sexual risk behaviors, particularly UAI. More research is needed to elucidate the interpersonal dynamics that may promote this high-risk behavior. Educational messages that explicitly address the risks of heterosexual anal intercourse need to be developed for heterosexually active women and their male partners.     

Frequency of consumption at fast-food restaurants is associated with dietary intake in overweight and obese women recruited from financially disadvantaged neighborhoods

Fast-food restaurants are more prevalent in lower-income and predominately African American neighborhoods, where consumption of fast food is also higher. In general populations, fast-food consumption is related to less healthy dietary intake. This cross-sectional study examined the hypotheses that greater fast-food consumption is associated with less healthy dietary intake and poorer diet quality in overweight and obese women (n = 196, 25-51 years, 87% African American) recruited from financially disadvantaged Census tracts. Dietary intake and diet quality (Alternate Healthy Eating Index) were assessed via three 24-hour dietary recalls. Linear regression models tested the association between fast-food consumption and each outcome (model 1). Model 2 added sociodemographics and physical activity. Model 3 added total caloric intake. Fast-food consumption was significantly associated with total caloric intake; total intake of meat, grains, sweetened beverages, dairy, fiber, cholesterol, sodium, and added sugar; and percent of calories from total fat, saturated fat, and trans–fatty acids. Statistically significant associations remained in model 2, but most were not significant in model 3. Fast-food consumption was not associated with diet quality (Alternate Healthy Eating Index) in any model. In this at-risk sample, fast-food consumption was associated with more negative dietary practices. Significant associations generally disappeared when controlling for total caloric intake, suggesting that women who eat more fast food have higher total caloric intakes as a result of increased consumption of unhealthy rather than healthy foods.     

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women,Infants, and Children Spillover Effect: Do Siblings Reap the Benefits?

BackgroundParticipation in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) among 0- to 5-year-old children is associated with healthier diets. Extension of dietary benefits to older, age-ineligible children (5-18 years old) residing in WIC households has not been fully investigated.ObjectiveExamine the association between household WIC participation and dietary behaviors of age-ineligible children.DesignCross-sectional secondary analysis of data collected from 2 independent panels (2009-2010 and 2014) of the New Jersey Child Health Study, using household surveys. Questions derived from national surveys assessed consumption frequency of specific foods among 5- to 18-year-old children.Participants/settingThe analytic sample included 616 age-ineligible children from households with incomes below 200% of the federal poverty level, 398 of whom were from WIC-participating households.Main outcome measuresEating behaviors were measured as frequency of daily consumption of fruit, vegetables, 100% juice, sugar-sweetened beverages, and sweet and salty snacks.Statistical analysisMultivariable negative binomial models examined the association between eating behaviors and household WIC participation status adjusting for child’s age, sex, and race; mother’s education; city of residence; household size; and panel. Results are expressed as incidence rate ratios (IRRs).ResultsHousehold WIC participation was not associated with dietary behaviors among age-ineligible children (5-18 years old) in the overall sample. However, healthier dietary patterns were observed for specific demographic groups. Compared with age-ineligible children in non-WIC households, age-ineligible children in WIC households had (1) a higher frequency of vegetable consumption among 12- to 18-year-old children (IRR = 1.29; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.05-1.58; P = .015); (2) a marginally significant higher frequency of 100% juice consumption among females (IRR = 1.27; 95% CI 1.00-1.62; P = .053); and (3) a lower frequency of sugar-sweetened beverages consumption among Hispanic children (IRR = 0.61; 95% CI 0.43-0.86; P = .004).ConclusionsHousehold WIC participation may positively influence dietary behaviors of age-ineligible children, suggesting a possible WIC spillover effect. Revisions to WIC package composition should consider the possible dietary implications for all children in the household.     

Relationship Quality and Changes in Depressive Symptoms Among Urban,Married African Americans,Hispanics, and Whites

Bivariate analyses showed that continuously married urban African American, non‐Hispanic White, and Hispanic fathers and mothers reporting greater marital support and less relational control experienced a decrease in depressive symptoms. Multiple regression showed a stronger association between concurrent marital support and decreased depressive symptoms for mothers than fathers. African American and Hispanic fathers reporting higher levels of spousal relationship support when children were infants reported a larger decrease in depressive symptoms when children were age 3 compared to non‐Hispanic Whites. Relationship control at age 3 was positively related to increased depressive symptoms among all groups except African American fathers and White mothers. African American and Hispanic fathers with marital problems may need additional support services.