Parental influence on sport participation in elite young athletes

AIM: To ascertain how talented young British swimmers, gymnasts, tennis and soccer players are introduced to their sport, and to identify how they are encouraged into intensive systematic training. METHODS: Two hundred and eighty-two elite young athletes (aged 8 to 17 yrs) and their parents were interviewed in their homes to identify how and why they started intensive training. RESULTS: Of the 4 sports studied (soccer, gymnastics, tennis, and swimming), parents of swimmers were more likely introduce their children to the sport (70%), while parents of gymnasts (42%) were the least likely to do so. However, in this sports parents played a lesser role in the transition to intensive training (6% and 5%, respectively). Nearly half the soccer players (47%) became involved in the sport because of their own interest, with the majority making the transition to intensive training because of encouragement by a coach (65%). Self-motivation (27%) and parental influence (57%) brought children into tennis with 25% of the young athletes in the sample autonomously deciding to start intensive training. Children from the lower socio-economic classes were underrepresented, and the total number of 1-parent families (5.3%) was considerably less than current British national norms (16.1%). CONCLUSION: In Britain, young athletes' involvement in high level sport is heavily dependent on their parents, with sports clubs and coaches playing an important later role. In the present socio-economic and cultural situation, many talented youngsters with less motivated parents will not undertake sport. Talented youngsters from a poorer economic background will be heavily disadvantaged, especially in sports such as tennis.     

Factors influencing sport participation among athletes with spinal cord injury

OBJECTIVE: This exploratory study examined the relationships between pre- and post-injury sport participation among active individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) in the United Kingdom. In particular, factors that influence individuals with SCI into sport were identified. METHODS: A total of 143 British individuals with SCI currently participating in wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, wheelchair tennis, and wheelchair athletics were recruited. A total of 112 subjects were active prelesion, and 31 subjects were inactive preinjury. A Disability Sport Participation questionnaire developed by the authors was used for data collection. The questionnaire was distributed through the British Wheelchair Sport Associations. Personal, impairment, health and fitness, socialization, and participation data of athletes with SCI were collected. Groups of active preinjury and inactive preinjury were compared. RESULTS: For athletes who had been active pre-SCI, the in-hospital rehabilitation program and specialized sport club for people with disabilities were more important contexts for introducing the sport after injury to individuals. Friends and peers with disabilities were much more influential as initial and continuing socialization agents than rehabilitation therapists. The main reasons for athletes with SCI who participated in sports after injury were for fitness, fun, health, and competition, although many athletes noted that social aspects and rehabilitation also influenced their sport participation. CONCLUSION: This study identified social contexts, social agents, difficulties, sources of information, and reasons for sport participation of athletes with SCI. The results may offer some directions for the improvement of rehabilitation programs for people with SCI and also help the development of appropriate strategies to encourage people with SCI to participate in sports and leisure activities.     

Sport specialization and sport participation opportunities and their association with injury history in female high school volleyball athletes

ObjectiveDetermine the association of sport specialization in female volleyball athletes with previous injury history and determine the association of sport specialization with volleyball participation opportunities.DesignCross-sectional.SettingRecruitment occurred from 83 Wisconsin high schools during the 2018 volleyball season.ParticipantsFemale volleyball athletes (N = 1,588, grades 9–12, age = 15.6 ± 1.1 years).Main outcomesParticipants completed a pre-season questionnaire soliciting information regarding 1) demographics, 2) sport specialization, 3) sport participation, and 4) sport-related injuries in the previous 12 months. Univariable logistic regression models were used to identify associations with previous injury. Chi-square analyses were used to investigate associations between sport specialization classification and other sport participation opportunities.ResultsBoth moderately and highly specialized athletes were more likely to report a previous injury compared to low specialized athletes (moderate OR: 1.84 [1.29–2.62]; p < 0.001 and high OR: 2.30 [1.64–3.24]; p < 0.001). Highly specialized athletes were more likely to report participating in club volleyball, summer tournaments, and training camps in the past 12 months. Participants who reported participating in club volleyball, summer competitions, and training camps last year were more likely to report an injury.ConclusionsSpecialization was associated with injury history and year-round volleyball opportunities among female adolescent volleyball athletes.     

Survey of sport participation and sport injury in Calgary and area high schools.

OBJECTIVE: To examine (1) sport participation and (2) sport injury in adolescents. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This was a retrospective survey design. In total, 2873 adolescents were recruited from a random sample of classes from 24 Calgary and area high schools. Each subject completed an in-class questionnaire in March 2004. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Overall and sport-specific participation rates (number of sport participants/number of students completing survey). Overall and sport-specific injury rates (number of injuries/number of participants). RESULTS: In the previous 1 year, 94% of students participated in sport. The top 5 sports by participation for males were basketball, hockey, football, snowboarding, and soccer, and for females, basketball, dance, volleyball, snowboarding, and soccer. The injury rate including only injuries requiring medical attention was 40.2 injuries/100 adolescents/y (95% CI, 38.4-42.1), presenting to a hospital emergency department was 8.1 injuries/100 adolescents/y (95% CI, 7.1-9.2), resulting in time loss from sport was 49.9 injuries/100 adolescents/y (95% CI, 48-51.8), and resulting in loss of consciousness was 9.3 injuries/100 adolescents/y (95% CI, 8.3-10.5). The greatest proportion of injuries occurred in basketball, hockey, soccer, and snowboarding. The top 5 body parts injured were the ankle, knee, head, back, and wrist. The top 5 injury types were sprain, contusion, concussion, fracture, and muscle strain. A previous injury was associated with 49% of the injuries and direct contact with 45% of injuries. CONCLUSIONS: Rates of participation in sport and sport injury are high in adolescents. Future research should focus on prevention strategies in sports with high participation and injury rates to maximize population health impact.     

Managing the risk of injury in sport.

Because the risk of injury in many sports is high, governing bodies and individuals involved with these sports have a responsibility to manage the risks at acceptable levels. Risk management provides a structured framework within which risks can be identified, evaluated, assessed, and controlled through appropriate mitigation strategies. Exploring inferences obtained from the relationship between risk and the incidence and severity of injury contributes to the understanding and control of risks in sport. Studies related to intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors should be focused on determining which factors cause an athlete's risk level to fall within the high-risk or low-risk regions of the population's risk distribution. Risk values can be used to derive risk contours, which illustrate the interdependence of incidence and severity on the development of effective risk mitigation strategies. The wide variation in the levels of risk across different sports is used to demonstrate the impact that athletes' perception and acceptance of risk have on their choice of sport. Finally, the use of incidence and severity data for predicting the prevalence of injury in a team and for the economic evaluation of intervention programmes is discussed.     

Incidence of injury based on sports participation in high school athletes

Objectives: Youth participation in competitive athletics has significantly increased in the past two decades. There has also been a recent rise in the number of sports injuries that physicians are seeing in young athletes. The objective of this study was to assess the likelihood of sports injuries based on several risk factors in a general sample of athletes at a suburban-area high school.

Methods: This was a cross-sectional study. An online survey was distributed to 2,200 student-athletes at a local high school with a mean age of 15.9 years. Four hundred eighty four (22%) complete responses were received. Data collected in the survey included demographics, frequency of sports participation, level of participation, types of sports played, participation in cross-training, injuries incurred, use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and treatment for sports injuries.

Results: Athletes played an average of 1.6 different sports. The average number of hours of participation in sports annually was 504.3 ± 371.6 hours. The average total number of sports injuries experienced by athletes in our study was 1.7 per participant. 80.8% of respondents reported having sustained at least one sports injury.

A higher total number of hours per year of sports participation and playing a contact sport were significantly associated with more reported lifetime sports injuries. Older age, playing a contact sport, and playing on a travel/club team were associated with students using NSAIDs for sports injuries. Older age, playing a contact sport, and doing cross training are also associated with having had surgery for a sports injury.

Conclusions: Although more hours of participation and playing a contact sport may lead to an increased number of injuries, this risk must be weighed against the myriad of benefits that sports provide for young athletes.     

Relationship between perceived physical ability and sport participation motives in young competitive swimmers

AIM: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between participation motives and perceived physical ability in young Spanish swimmers and to investigate whether swimmers with high or low perceived physical competence differ in their intrinsic and/or extrinsic reasons for participation involvement. METHODS: Four hundred and twenty-eight swimmers (204 boys and 224 girls), aged 8-22 years, responded to the Spanish versions of the Participation Motivation Inventory (PMI) and the Perceived Physical Ability Scale (PPA). Swimmers were divided into low (below the 33%), medium (between the 33-66%) and high (above the 66%) perceived ability groups. RESULTS: Multivariate analysis indicated the existence of differences in motives for participation between swimmers with different levels of perceived physical ability. Follow-up univariate analyses yielded significant (p<0.05) effects for 5 motivational factors: health/fitness, fun/friendship, competition/skills, affiliation and status. In all cases swimmers high in perceived physical ability rated significantly higher than those in the other categories. The PPA by gender, age or level of expertise interaction was not significant. CONCLUSIONS: Practitioners must consider the perceived ability of the competitors to better structure the social environment within which their swimmers operate.     

Single season re-injury risk after concussion and lower extremity injury among male,collision sport,high school athletes

ObjectivesResearch suggests that a recent concussion increases subsequent lower extremity injury risk; however, data in high school athletes is limited. This study evaluates the association between concussion and subsequent injury risk among male, collision sport, high school athletes over a single season.DesignRetrospective cohort study.MethodsData were obtained from 2005/06–2014/15 in the High School Reporting Information Online database. A two stage, multi-method matching process was used to identify athletes who suffered multiple injuries over a single athletic season. Demographics and injury characteristics were compared with Chi square and Student's t-tests. Multiple Cox Proportional Hazards regression analysis was used to test whether index injury type was associated with hazard of subsequent injury following return to play from index injury.ResultsOverall 1364 HS athletes sustained 2 injuries over a single athletic season (subsequent injury within 45 days of the index injury). Index injuries included 686 (50.2%) lower extremity injuries, 417 (30.6%) upper extremity injuries, and 261 (19.1%) concussions. Hazard of subsequent concussion was increased in the index concussion group relative to the index lower extremity injury group [hazard ratio (HR): 1.60, 95% CI: 1.15–2.23, p = 0.0052]. Hazard of a subsequent lower extremity injury was not significantly different for the index lower extremity injury group relative to the index concussion group [HR: 1.27, 95% CI: 0.98–1.65, p = 0.0728].ConclusionsHistory of recent concussion or recent lower extremity injury are both risk factors for subsequent lower extremity injury in male, collision sport, high school athletes.     

The impact of sport related stressors on immunity and illness risk in team-sport athletes

Objectives

Elite team-sport athletes are frequently exposed to stressors that have the potential to depress immunity and increase infection risk. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to describe how team-sport stressors impact upon immune responses, along with exploring whether alterations in these markers have the potential to predict upper respiratory tract illness symptoms.

Analysis of sex‐specific injury patterns and risk factors in young high‐level athletes

This study analyzed sex‐specific injury patterns and risk factors in young athletes (n=256) from 12 sport disciplines practicing at the national or the international level in the Grand‐Duchy of Luxembourg. Injury occurrence as a result of sport practice was analyzed retrospectively over the year 2006 using a standardized self‐administered questionnaire. Overall incidence was not different between girls and boys (1.20 and 1.21 injuries/1000 athlete‐hours, respectively), but in the context of team sport competition girls tended to be at a greater risk (rate ratio 2.05, P=0.053). Girls had a higher proportion of injuries in the ankle/foot region compared with boys (34.8% vs 16.8%). No sex‐related differences were found regarding injury severity. Multivariate logistic regression (controlling for age and practice volume) revealed that girls' team sports were associated with a greater injury risk compared with individual sports [odds ratio (OR) of 4.76], while in boys this was observed for racket sports (OR=3.31). Furthermore, physical or emotional stress tended to be a specific risk factor in girls. There was a tendency for injury outside sports to be coupled to a higher injury risk in girls and boys. Consideration of sex‐specific injury patterns and risk factors could be of importance for effective injury prevention.     

Down syndrome and sport participation

Individuals with Down syndrome (DS) derive measurable physiologic and psychologic benefits from participation in physical activities and sports. Physicians in the position of evaluating these individuals and providing guidance in regard to their competitive or recreational physical activities need to be aware of the physiologic and anatomic concerns specific to this population. Effective screening and evaluation by a physician, accompanied with clearly communicated guidelines for specific activities, can provide an individual with DS the opportunity to safely participate in sports and recreational physical activity.     

Motivation for sport participation in older Italian athletes: the role of age, gender and competition level

This study aimed at identifying whether age, competition level and gender influence motivation for sport participation in Italian senior athletes. Four hundred and thirty-three athletes aged 45–80 years participated in the study by completing the SMS questionnaire validated for this population. Separate scores for the 7 Extrinsic Motivation (EM), Intrinsic Motivation (IM) and Amotivation (AM) subscales of the SMS questionnaire, as well as a global self-determination index, were calculated. Psychometric testing did not fully support the factor structure of the SMS due to the presence of cross-loading items, suggesting that some items should be revisited to better fit the older athlete population. The analyses of the effects of age, competition level and gender on sport motivation of senior athletes showed a significant interaction between age (45–55, 55–65, >65 years) and competition level (local, regional, national, international) both for the global self-determination index and for the EM scale score. It suggests that the oldest athletes competing at local level are less supported by self-determination as compared to their younger counterparts or to age-matched athletes competing at national or international level and that EM may be a key motivational factor for the ageing athlete depending on his/her competition level. Despite the hypothesised influence of stereotyped gender role socialisation on self-determination of older athletes, no gender difference emerged.