Recovery of brachial plexus injury after shoulder dislocation

Brachial plexus injury is an underestimated complication from anterior dislocation of the shoulder. To our knowledge, there is limited information available about the factors that influence neurological recovery of this injury. We reviewed 15 upper extremities in 14 patients with brachial plexus injuries caused by anterior shoulder dislocation. Two-thirds of the cases had total brachial plexus palsy. With the conservative treatment, the motor recoveries of all cases are full or nearly full within 20 months except intrinsic muscle of the hand. Intrinsic muscle recovery may be better in a younger age group (less than 50 years). Nerve exploration is usually unnecessary. However, reconstructive surgery for the residual neurological deficit can provide improvement of hand function.     

神经移位治疗臂丛上干根性撕脱伤

目的 阐明神经移位治疗臂丛上干根性撕脱伤的疗效。方法 1990年3月至1998年2月,对14例臂丛干根性撕脱伤患者,将同侧胸前外侧神经直接移位于腑神经,胸背神经直接移位于肌皮神经,以重建三角肌、肱三头肌功能。结果 术后随访1年以上,三角肌肌力8例恢复至M4,4例M3,2例为M3－;肱二头肌肌力14例均恢复至M4。结论 运用同侧胸前外侧神经、胸背神经移闰的方法治疗臂丛上干根性撕脱伤,疗效较好;对原有的臂丛中、下干神经的主要功能无明显影响。     

Cervicothoracic intraspinal pseudomeningocele with cord compression after a traumatic brachial plexus injury

Background context

Pseudomeningoceles are noted within the neural foramen after avulsion plexus injuries. We present the case of a cervicothoracic epidural pseudomeningocele with spinal cord compression 18 years after a brachial plexus injury.

Purpose

To present a case report of a patient and literature review on cases with epidural pseudomeningoceles.

Study design

Case report and review of the literature.

Methods

Retrospective review of the medical records of a patient presenting with an epidural pseudomeningocele after a plexus injury.

Results

A 37-year-old male presented with neurological decline 18 years after sustaining a brachial plexus injury. Magnetic resonance tomography revealed an epidural fluid collection from C5 to T7 with significant spinal cord compression. Surgical intervention initially involved fenestration of the cyst and then rhizotomies of the C7 and C8 roots resulting in resolution of his new symptoms.

Conclusions

Pseudomeningoceles are common after brachial plexus avulsion injury and are usually stable, causing no symptoms, other than plexus neuropathies. We are unaware of previous reports of a patient with a traumatic brachial plexus avulsion who developed a large cervicothoracic, symptomatic, spinal, epidural, intracanalicular pseudomeningocele with cord compression 18 years after the initial injury. Patients with prior trauma and known plexus injuries with development of new neurological symptoms should be evaluated for the rare case of intradural pseudomeningoceles. Preoperative imaging with computed tomography myelography is important to isolate and definitively treat the fistulous connection.     

喷他佐辛复合罗哌卡因臂丛神经阻滞的效果观察

目的 观察喷他佐辛复合罗哌卡因用于臂丛神经阻滞的效果.方法 40例ASA Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,接受肌间沟臂丛神经阻滞行上肢手术的患者随机均分为:A组,0.33%罗哌卡因30 ml;B组,0.33%罗哌卡因30 ml+喷他佐辛30 mg.手术开始15、30、60 rain及术后1、6、12、24 h行VAS疼痛评分,并记录麻醉起效时间、持续时间及不良反应发生率.结果 B组感觉与运动神经阻滞起效时间明显快于A组(P<0.05),镇痛持续时间明显长于A组(P<0.05),术中、术后VAS疼痛评分低于A组(P<0.05).结论 喷他佐辛复合罗哌卡因臂丛神经阻滞可缩短阻滞起效时间,延长持续时间,改善镇痛效果.     

Modified constraint-induced movement therapy during hospitalization in children with perinatal brachial plexus palsy: A randomized controlled trial

Study DesignProspective single-blind, randomized controlled study.IntroductionChildren with perinatal brachial plexus palsy (PBPP) have motion limitations in the affected upper extremity. Modified constraint-induced movement therapy (mCIMT) is one of the treatment options used for the improvement of the function of the affected limb.Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of this study was to compare the effect of mCIMT and conventional therapy in improving active range of motion (ROM) and functional use of the affected upper extremity in children with PBPP with injuries to upper and middle trunks in the hospital environment.Materials26 patients received conventional rehabilitation program (control group) and 13 patients participated in a mCIMT program (study group). Children had a mean age 56.3 months (range 4-10 years). The mCIMT included 1 hour therapy sessions emphasizing the affected arm use for 14 consecutive days during hospitalization. Their normal arm was also constrained for 6 hour per day. All the patients were assessed at the baseline, one day, one month, and three months after completion of therapy using active ROM, active movement scale, hand dynamometer, box and blocks test.ResultsThe mCIMT group improved more than the control group in shoulder internal rotation, forearm supination, elbow flexion active ROMs, hand grip strength, and in upper extremity function.ConclusionmCIMT has a potential to promote functional gains for children with PBPP; this approach should be widely applied within routine clinical practice.     

右美托咪啶对上肢手术患者罗哌卡因臂丛神经阻滞效果及上肢缺血再灌注损伤的影响

目的 探讨右美托咪啶对上肢手术患者臂丛神经阻滞及上肢缺血再灌注损伤的影响.方法 拟行腋路臂丛神经阻滞的上肢手术患者40例,性别不限,年龄18～55岁,体重45～80kg,ASA分级Ⅰ或Ⅱ级.采用随机数字表法,将患者随机分为2组(n=20),对照组(C组):神经阻滞用药为0.5%罗哌卡因30 ml;右美托咪啶组(D组):神经阻滞用药为0.5%罗哌卡因+右美托咪啶8 mg混合液30 ml.评价感觉阻滞和运动阻滞的效果,记录感觉阻滞和运动阻滞的起效时间和维持时间,于麻醉诱导前(T0)、松止血带后1、5和30 min(T1-3)时抽取术侧肘部静脉血样,测定血浆MDA和缺血修饰蛋白(IMA)的浓度,同时取术侧肘部动脉血样,行血气分析.记录术中恶心呕吐、呼吸抑制、头晕、心动过缓等并发症的发生情况.术中主诉疼痛的患者静脉注射舒芬太尼0.2μg/kg,仍因疼痛无法完成手术的患者则改为全身麻醉.结果 无一例患者使用补救用药,无一例患者更改麻醉方式,所有患者均未发生恶心呕吐、呼吸抑制、头晕、心动过缓等并发症.与C组比较,D组感觉阻滞、运动阻滞维持时间明显延长,血浆MDA和IMA的浓度明显降低,PaO2和BE升高(P＜0.05),感觉阻滞和运动阻滞的起效时间差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);与T0时比较,两组T2、T3时血浆MDA和IMA的浓度升高,C组T1时pH值降低,两组T1时PaO2降低,T1、T2时BE降低(P＜0.05).结论 右美托咪啶不仅可增强上肢手术患者罗哌卡因臂丛神经阻滞效果,还可减轻止血带诱发的上肢缺血再灌注损伤.

Abstract：

Objective To investigate the effect of dexmedetomidine on brachial plexus block with ropivacaine and upper extremity ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury in patients undergoing upper extremity surgery. Methods Forty ASA Ⅰ or Ⅱ patients of both sexes, aged 18-55 yr, weighing 45-80 kg, scheduled forupper extremity surgery under brachial plexus block, were randomly divided into 2 groups ( n = 20 each): control group ( group C )and dexmedtomidine group (group D). In group C, brachial plexus block was performed using 0.5% ropivacaine 30 ml. In group D, brachial plexus block was performed with a mixture (30 ml) of 0.5% ropivacaine and 8 mg dexmedetomidine. The efficacy of motor and sensory block was evaluated and the onset time and duration of motor and sensory block were recorded. Venous blood samples were obtained from peripheral vein on the operated side before anesthesia induction (T0), and at 1, 5 and 30 min after tourniquet release (T1-3) to detect the plasma concentrations of MDA and ischemia-modified albumi (IMA). Arterial blood samples were also obtained at the same time points for blood gas analysis. The complications such as nausea and vomiting, respiratory depression, bradycardia and dizziness were recorded. Sufentanil 0.2 μg/kg was given as rescue medication. If the operation could not be completed, general anesthesia was used. Results There was no requirement for rescue analgesics and general anesthesia, and no complications occurred in all the patients. The duration of sensory and motor block was significantly longer, the plasma concentrations of MDA and IMA were significantly lower, and PaO2 and BE were significantly higher in group D than in group C ( P ＜ 0.05). The plasma concentrations of MDA and IMA were significantly higher at T2 and T3 in both groups, the pH value was significantly lower at T1 in group C, PaO2 at T1 and BE at T1 and T2 were significantly lower in both groups than those at T0 ( P ＜ 0.05). Conclusion Dexmedetomidine can not only enhance the efficacy of brachial plexus block with ropivacaine, but also reduce the upper extremity I/R injury caused by tourniquet in patients undergoing upper extremity surgery.     

Nerve reconstruction: A cohort study of 93 cases of global brachial plexus palsy

Introduction:

Brachial plexus injury leading to flail upper limb is one of the most disabling injuries. Neglect of the injury and delay in surgeries may preclude reinnervation of the paralysed muscles. Currently for such injuries nerve transfers are the preferred procedures. We here present a series of 93 cases of global brachial plexus palsy treated with nerve transfers.

Materials and Methods:

Ninety-three cases of global palsies out of 384 cases of brachial plexus injury operated by the senior surgeon (AB) were selected. Age varied from 4 to 51 years with 63 patients in 20 to 40 age group and all patients having a minimum follow up of at least 1 year post surgery ranging up to 130 months. The delay before surgery ranged from 15 days to 16 months (mean 3.2 months). The aim of the surgery was to restore the elbow flexion, shoulder abduction, triceps function and wrist and finger flexion in that order of priority. The major nerve transfers used were spinal accessory to suprascapular nerve, intercostal to musculocutaneous nerve and pectoral nerves, contralateral C7 to median and radial nerves. Nerve stumps were used whenever available (30 patients).

Results:

Recovery of ≥ grade 3 power was noted in biceps in 73% (68/93) of patients, shoulder abduction in 89% (43/49), pectoralis major in 100% (8/8). Recovery of grade 2 triceps power was seen in 80% (12/16) patients with nerve transfer to radial nerve. Derotation osteotomies of humerus (n=13) and wrist fusion (n=14) were the most common secondary procedures performed to facilitate alignment and movements of the affected limb. Better results were noted in 59 cases where direct nerve transfers were done (without nerve graft).

Conclusion:

Acceptable function (restoration of biceps power ≥3) can be obtained in more than two thirds (73%) of these global brachial plexus injuries by using the principles of early exploration and nerve transfer with rehabilitation.     

A new model for the study of neuropathic pain after brachial plexus injury

The study was to introduce a new and reliable behavioral model of upper trunk of brachial plexus avulsion for the study of persistent neuropathic pain. 60 rats were divided into three groups randomly: upper trunk of brachial plexus avulsion (UTBPA) group (20), global brachial plexus avulsion (GBPA) group (20), and sham- operated group (20). The animals were tested for behavioral responsiveness before surgeries and 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 56, 84 days after surgeries. The injured level of spinal cord was resected and the sections were processed for GFAP (astrocyte) and Iba1 (microglia) immunohistochemistry 3 weeks after surgeries. The UTBPA group developed significant signs both of mechanical and cold hypersensitivity, which matched the immunohistochemistry result, as well as the nature of avulsion was close to the clinical type of injury, the UTBPA group could be used as a suitable and effective persistent neuropathic pain model following brachial plexus injury.     

Expectations and limitations due to brachial plexus injury: a qualitative study

Purpose

This study described physical and psychosocial limitations associated with adult brachial plexus injuries (BPI) and patients’ expectations of BPI surgery.

Methods

During in-person interviews, preoperative patients were asked about expectations of surgery and preoperative and postoperative patients were asked about limitations due to BPI. Postoperative patients also rated improvement in condition after surgery. Data were analyzed with qualitative and quantitative techniques.

Results

Ten preoperative and 13 postoperative patients were interviewed; mean age was 37 years, 19 were men, all were employed/students, and most injuries were due to trauma. Preoperative patients cited several main expectations, including pain-related issues, and improvement in arm movement, self-care, family interactions, and global life function. Work-related expectations were tailored to employment type. Preoperative and postoperative patients reported that pain, altered sensation, difficulty managing self-care, becoming physically and financially dependent, and disability in work/school were major issues. All patients reported making major compensations, particularly using the uninjured arm. Most reported multiple mental health effects, were distressed with long recovery times, were self-conscious about appearance, and avoided public situations. Additional stresses were finding and paying for BPI surgery. Some reported BPI impacted overall physical health, life priorities, and decision-making processes. Four postoperative patients reported hardly any improvement, four reported some/a good deal, and five reported a great deal of improvement.

Conclusions

BPI is a life-altering event affecting physical function, mental well-being, financial situation, relationships, self-image, and plans for the future. This study contributes to clinical practice by highlighting topics to address to provide comprehensive BPI patient-centered care.     

儿童创伤性臂丛神经撕脱伤的屈指功能重建

目的 观察健侧C_7,经椎体前通路移位与下干直接吻合,重建儿童创伤性臂从神经撕脱伤屈指功能的效果.方法 健侧C_7,在其前后股的远端切断,向近端游离至椎间孔,经椎体前通路牵至患侧.游离患侧臂丛下干及内侧束,切断下干后股及胸前内侧神经.将正中神经、尺神经及前臂内侧皮神经自内侧束的起始处一直游离到上臂中段.息肩前屈、内收至0°位,肘关节屈曲90°,上提患侧下干并与健侧C_7,直接吻合.2004年8月至2008年3月对20例患儿进行了健侧C_7,与患侧下干或内侧束直接吻合术.其中男16例,女4例;年龄5-18岁,平均13岁;伤后到手术时间1-11个月,平均4.6个月.全臂丛撕脱伤13例,中、下干撕脱伤7例.为减少吻合口张力,11例进行了肱骨短缩,短缩长度2.5-4.5 cm,平均(3.1±0.7)cm.结果 术后患者随访时间12-51个月,平均 27.4个月.屈指肌力4级18例,2级2例;屈拇长肌力4级10例、3级8例、2级2例.小指展肌肌力3级l例,2级1例;拇短展肌肌力3级1例.结论 健侧C_7,与患侧下干直接吻合,由于只有一个吻 合口及缩短了神经再生的距离,其重建屈指、屈拇功能的效果满意,并可恢复手内在肌的部分功能.     

臂丛损伤后神经移位寄养法预防失神经支配肌萎缩的实验研究

目的研究臂丛损伤后神经移位端侧缝合寄养法是否有预防失神经支配骨骼肌肌萎缩的作用。方法64只SD大鼠随机分成两组。对照组：切断肌皮神经，造成肱二头肌失神经支配。实验组：切断肌皮神经后，胸内侧神经分支移位与肌皮神经远端作端侧缝合寄养失神经支配的肱二头肌。术后2、4、6、8周观察大鼠的行为变化与肱二头肌的萎缩程度，检测肱二头肌肌肉纤颤电位或再生电位、肱二头肌肌肉湿重、肌纤维截面积和Na-K-ATP酶活性。以左侧为实验侧，右侧为自身对照侧，将左侧测量值除以右侧测量值，求各观察值恢复率，比较组间各观察值的恢复率。结果术后对照组随着失神经时间延长，肌肉萎缩程度逐渐加重，屈肘功能不能恢复，纤颤电位波幅逐渐下降，肌肉湿重、肌纤维截面积和酶的活性均逐渐下降；而实验组随着神经寄养时间的延长，肌肉萎缩程度逐渐减轻，屈肘功能逐渐恢复，出现再生电位，肌肉湿重、肌纤维截面积逐渐增加，酶活性逐渐升高，虽不及正常组，但明显不同于肌肉萎缩严重的失神经组。结论神经移位端侧缝合寄养法可以有效地预防失神经支配骨骼肌肌萎缩。     

神经移植术修复幼年大鼠臂丛神经损伤后对神经元保护作用的实验研究

目的研究神经移植术修复幼年大鼠臂丛神经损伤后对神经元的保护作用。方法将出生18 d SD大鼠24只等分为2组。神经根切断组：将右侧颈，神经根切除0．3cm。神经根修复组：颈5神经根部分切除后取腓肠神经移植修复。采用True Blue注射法逆行标记神经元。于术后4周取颈，脊髓和背根神经节，应用TUN-EL法检测运动及感觉神经元中细胞凋亡情况，并观察两组神经元数量的变化。结果与神经根切断组相比，神经根修复组神经元数量显著增加（P〈0．01），凋亡细胞数明显减少（P〈0．01）。结论神经移植术修复幼年大鼠臂丛神经损伤后对近端运动和感觉神经元有保护作用。     

健侧颈7移位治疗臂丛神经根性撕脱伤最佳时间选择的实验研究

健侧颈７移位治疗臂丛神经根性撕脱伤手术分第一阶段（健侧颈７移位到移植神经），第二阶段（移植神经另一端移植修复患侧神经），二次手术间隔多少时间才能获得最好的神经再生？选用ＳＤ大鼠及健侧颈７移位的实验模型，按二次手术间隔时间的不同（０、１、２、３、４、８、１６周）分成７组，在第二次术后１２周，进行电生理测定肌张力恢复率及组织切片的形态学观察，结果证实二次手术最佳间隔时间为４～８周．此结果可提供临床参考．     

根性臂丛神经损伤的电生理研究及与治疗的关系（附376例分析）

为研究肌电图等综合电生理检查对臂丛神经根性损伤的诊断价值，对３７６例臂丛神经损伤的综合电生理表现进行了分析．其中根性受损２２６例，占６０．１％，且２／３伤情复杂，损伤平面不一，并对其进行了分类诊断．部分病例作了手术随诊，诊断符合率为９３．９％．综合电生理检查为临床治疗方法的选择提供了有力的依据，同时对其诊断的标准作了修正．     

大鼠臂丛神经慢性卡压后不同时程神经组织的超微结构研究

目的 探讨大鼠臂丛神经慢性卡压后不同时程神经组织的超微结构变化。方法 建立大鼠慢性卡压模型，对卡压后不同时程神经组织的细胞成分进行超微结构的量化分析，有髓神经纤维数目计数，测定髓鞘厚度、脱髓鞘神经纤维、空化神经纤维，以及观察巨噬细胞、新生有髓神经纤维。结果 慢性卡压神经的超微结构较正常神经有明显变化，但又与急性神经损伤有所不同：(1)有髓神经纤维数目在早期无明显减少，在中期明显减少，在后期虽然总数仍减少，但与中期相比却呈上升趋势，这与后期出现的新生有髓神经纤维有关。(2)髓鞘厚度一直呈下降趋势，并与卡压时程呈正相关。(3)巨噬细胞活性在卡压12周时明显增强，内含大量退变髓鞘及坏死神经轴突。(4)在卡压后16周组出现较多新生有髓神经纤维，但髓鞘结构发育不完善，髓鞘厚度较薄。结论 脱髓鞘改变即髓鞘厚度的变化是卡压神经组织的早期变化，神经轴突的变化(空化神经纤维)是卡压神经组织的晚期变化。神经的慢性卡压过程是神经纤维变性、坏死和神经纤维再生的两种相反方向的不平衡的动态变化过程，并以损伤占主导地位。     

胸腔镜视下切取膈神经移位治疗臂丛神经损伤的临床应用报告

目的 首创在胸腔镜视下切断膈神经远端移接于肌皮神经的新术式。方法 临床应用５例。在胸腔镜视下于人膈肌近端切断膈神经,游离在胸腔内的膈神经全长。膈神经自锁骨上抽出经皮下引至肌皮神经３例,于锁骨下自第二肋间引起移位于肌皮神经２例。移接于肌皮神经主干２例,移接于肌皮神经肌支３例。首例于术后１１０ｄ,检测肱二头肥肥电图出现再生电位。结论 胸腔镜视下切并游离胸腔内膈神经全长,是膈神经移位术中切取膈神经的最佳     

端侧缝合与神经移位修复臂丛损伤的比较研究

目的 为临床提供端侧缝合与神经移位修复臂丛损伤疗效优劣的实验依据。方法 Wistar大鼠36只,按术后取材时间分为1、2、3个月组,每组12只。按手术方法分为2组。(1)端侧缝合组(前肢右侧):于臂丛内侧束远端外侧外膜上开窗,将桡神经远断端和内侧束开窗处作外膜端侧缝合。(2)神经移位组(前肢左侧):在正中神经远端切断神经,将其近端和桡神经远断端作端端缝合。术后两组各时间组行电生理、肌湿重、肌纤维截面积、运动终板面积及抗神经丝(neurofilament,NF)免疫组化和神经超微结构观察。结果 端侧缝合组的运动神经传导速度,诱发电位潜伏期,NF阳性表达强度均劣于神经移位组(P<0.01);肌湿重、肌纤维截面积及运动终板面积两组差异无显著意义(P>0.01)。结论 端侧缝合组术后远端神经虽可再生但疗效明显差于神经移位组,故临床上是否可用其来修复臂丛神经损伤尚需进一步研究。     

Clinical outcome of shoulder muscle transfer for shoulder deformities in obstetric brachial plexus palsy: A study of 150 cases

Background:

Residual muscle weakness, cross-innervation (caused by misdirected regenerating axons), and muscular imbalance are the main causes of internal rotation contractures leading to limitation of shoulder joint movement, glenoid dysplasia, and deformity in obstetric brachial plexus palsy. Muscle transfers and release of antagonistic muscles improve range of motion as well as halt or reverse the deterioration in the bony architecture of the shoulder joint. The aim of our study was to evaluate the clinical outcome of shoulder muscle transfer for shoulder abnormalities in obstetric brachial plexus palsy.

Materials and Methods:

One hundred and fifty patients of obstetric brachial plexus palsy with shoulder deformity underwent shoulder muscle transfer along with anterior shoulder release at our institutions from 1999 to 2007. Shoulder function was assessed both preoperatively and postoperatively using aggregate modified Mallet score and active and passive range of motion. The mean duration of follow-up was 4 years (2.5–8 years).

Results:

The mean preoperative abduction was 45° ± 7.12, mean passive external rotation was 10° ± 6.79, the mean active external rotation was 0°, and the mean aggregate modified Mallet score was 11.2 ± 1.41. At a mean follow-up of 4 years (2.5–8 years), the mean active abduction was 120° ± 18.01, the mean passive external rotation was 80° ± 10.26, while the mean active external rotation was 45° ± 3.84. The mean aggregate modified Mallet score was 19.2 ± 1.66.

Conclusions:

This procedure can thus be seen as a very effective tool to treat internal rotation and adduction contractures, achieve functional active abduction and external rotation, as well as possibly prevent glenohumeral dysplasia, though the long-term effects of this procedure may still have to be studied in detail clinico-radiologically to confirm this hypothesis.

Level of evidence:

Therapeutic level IV