Matrix metalloproteinases in skin pathology (Review)

Human tissue is composed in part of cells and in part of amorphous matrix components. Equilibrium exists between the synthesis and degradation of connective tissue under physiological conditions, which serves both the formation and the maintenance of tissue architecture. Synthesis progresses via mesenchymal cells, degradation is controlled by the proteolytic effect of a group of enzymes, which belong to the protein family of matrix metalloproteinases. In biological development, matrix metalloproteinases play an important role in all essential configurative processes in embryo- and histogenesis. As a result of the importance of matrix metalloproteinases in creation of connective tissue, dysregulation with excessive proteolytic activity may result in tissue damage. Histological structural changes are set in relation to the molecular expression pattern of matrix metalloproteinases using matrix relevant diseases of human skin. Discussion includes fibrosing processes, skin inflammations, wound healing, blistering diseases, premature sun-induced skin aging and primary cutaneous malignomas and their metastases.     

Matrix metalloproteinases in renal development

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are enzymes with metal ion-dependent activity that degrade extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoproteins. MMPs play a vital role in various biological processes, such as embryogenesis, tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, and wound healing, and in certain disease processes, for example, metastasis of cancer cells. Following their activation, MMPs are believed to modulate both cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, which in turn regulate cellular differentiation, migration, proliferation, and cell survival. Being involved in pericellular proteolysis, they maintain a gradient of ECM proteins by balancing ECM synthesis and degradation. Such a balance is critical for various mammalian developmental processes during embryonic life and also for the homeostasis of various organs and reparative processes in later life. During the past two decades the role of MMPs in the morphogenesis of various organs, including that of the metanephros, has been investigated extensively. Mammalian nephrogenesis comprises a series of intricate events characterized by a sustained remodeling and turnover of ECM, suggesting a potential role of MMPs in renal development. Conceivably, reciprocal inductive epithelial-mesenchymal interactions that take place at the very commencement of nephrogenesis are modulated by a number of ECM proteins. Their expression, especially at the epithelial-mesenchymal interface, are critical for metanephric development, and such a strategic expression is likely to be modified by a number of different macromolecules that exhibit spatiotemporal and stage-specific expression. Among them the most suitable candidate that could exert such a control would be MMPs. This review addresses the current status of our understanding of the functions and the role of MMPs in renal development.     

基质金属蛋白酶与椎间盘的退变

背景：椎间盘细胞外基质的破坏是椎间盘退变的主要标志,已经证实这与主要基质金属蛋白酶的表达和活性上调有关。然而到目前为止对于基质金属蛋白酶家族的调节几乎没有系统的资料。 目的：全面了解基质金属蛋白酶在椎间盘退变中的表达及作用。 方法：由第一作者用计算机检索中国生物医学全文数据库(SinoMed：2000/2011)和Medline数据库(2000/2011),检索词分别为“基质金属蛋白酶,基质金属蛋白酶组织抑制因子,椎间盘,退行性变,脊柱”和“matrix metalloproteinases,tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases,disc,degeneration,intervertebral”。共检索到207篇文章,按纳入和排除标准对文献进行筛选,共纳入31篇文章。回顾收录的基质金属蛋白酶相关综述和论文报告,并分析生物学作用及调节的研究进展。 结果与结论：基质金属蛋白酶在椎间盘退变中起着重要作用,已有证据表明基质金属蛋白酶能加速椎间盘细胞外基质的退变进程,并已取得了大量免疫组化证据的支持。     

Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in bronchial squamous preinvasive lesions

Metalloproteinases and their inhibitors are known to play an important role in the extracellular matrix remodeling associated with preinvasive lesions and invasive carcinomas; however, little is known about their role in early lung carcinoma. Immunohistochemical studies were made of the reactivity of bronchial squamous preneoplastic lesions from cigarette smokers, including basal cell hyperplasia, squamous metaplasia, dysplasia, carcinoma in situ, and invasive squamous cell carcinoma for matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs), and type IV collagen in 13 patients. Staining for type IV collagen disclosed discontinuities in basement membranes from basal cell hyperplasia to dysplasia, progressing to destruction in carcinoma in situ and invasive carcinoma. Reactivity for MMP-9 was mild in basal cell hyperplasia and squamous metaplasia, increasing in carcinoma in situ and invasive carcinoma. In contrast, reactivity for MMP-1 was strong in basal cell hyperplasia and squamous metaplasia, decreasing in carcinoma in situ and invasive carcinoma. Some neoplastic cells in carcinoma in situ and invasive carcinoma were MMP-3 positive. Staining for MMP-2 and TIMP-1 was moderate to strong in all squamous preinvasive lesions. Confocal microscopy showed MMP-9-positive cells passing through fragmented basement membranes in which type IV collagen and MMP-9 were colocalized. Type IV collagen colocalized with MMP-2 in all lesions and with TIMP-1 in basal cell hyperplasia and squamous metaplasia. The inverse relationships between the reactivity for MMP-1 and MMP-9 with progression of bronchial squamous preinvasive lesions suggest important roles for these MMPs in basement membrane remodeling in these lesions.     

Matrix metalloproteinases and the immune response

The timely breakdown of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential in many physiological and biological processes. The matrix-degradation process involves tissue remodeling and immune/inflammatory reactions that occur in the stroma. Thus, the proteolytic and destructive potential of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family is a major concern in several pathological conditions involving ECM degradation. This review details the structures and functions of MMPs and presents an overview of the interaction of MMPs with components of the immune system.     

Matrix metalloproteinases in tumour invasion and metastasis.

The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a large family of proteolytic enzymes, which are involved in the degradation of many different components of the extracellular matrix. The MMPs have been classified into different groups including collagenases, gelatinases, stromelysins, and others, particularly membrane-type MMPs, based mainly on the in vitro substrate specificity of individual MMPs. There is increasing evidence to indicate that individual MMPs have important roles in tumour invasion and metastasis. However, the current concept of the role of MMPs in tumour invasion is that they not only have a direct role in tumour invasion by facilitating extracellular matrix degradation, but as a consequence they also have an important role in maintaining the tumour micro-environment and thus promoting tumour growth. Inhibiting the action of MMPs represents a new therapeutic approach for the treatment of individual types of cancer and several broad-spectrum, low-molecular-weight MMP inhibitors are currently being assessed for clinical use. This review examines the role of MMPs in tumour invasion and metastasis, with an emphasis on studies of clinical relevance.     

Matrix metalloproteinases in subjects with type 1 diabetes

Background  

Nephropathy is serious complication of diabetes. We have previously shown that level of the proteoglycan syndecan-1 in blood is associated with ultrastructural kidney changes in young persons with type 1 diabetes. Dysregulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs) may contribute to the development of nephropathy. The aim of this study was to investigate if the levels of MMPs in blood samples are potential markers of early nephropathy in type 1 diabetes.     

Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in human fetal testis and ovary.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP) are major regulators of tissue remodelling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and may also be involved in the control of growth factor availability. We have investigated their production and localization in the developing human gonad during mid-gestation using zymographic techniques and immunohistochemistry. The secretion of MMP-2, MMP-9 and all four TIMP was demonstrated from both testis and ovary, with the predominant gelatinase produced by both being MMP-2. In the testis, MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9 and all TIMP family members were localized to the interstitium and to varying degrees within the tubules. MMP-9 and TIMP-4 were abundant in both Sertoli cells and gonocytes and MMP-1 and TIMP-1 were localized in particular to Sertoli cells. In the ovary, all TIMP and MMP-1, MMP-2 and MMP-9 were localized to the oogonium/oocyte cytoplasm with varying intensities and MMP-1, TIMP-2 and TIMP-3 were also detected in the ovarian stroma. This study demonstrates that MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9 and all TIMP family members are secreted by the developing ovary and testis and are localized to specific cell and tissue sites. MMP and TIMP are likely to play a role in ECM remodelling during gonadal development and also in the cell and matrix interactions that control a range of cellular functions.     

MMP-9/TIMP-1表达在糖尿病鼠皮肤伤口愈合过程中的变化及意义初探

目的：观察基质金属蛋白酶-9（MMP-9）、组织金属蛋白酶抑制剂-1（TIMP-1）的表达和MMP-9/TIMP-1比值在糖尿病组和正常组大鼠皮肤伤口愈合过程中不同时点表达的动态变化，探讨其可能的作用机制。 方法:糖尿病大鼠形成6周后行皮肤伤口造模，采用HE染色、Masson染色和免疫组织化学方法评估伤口形成后3、7、14 d伤口组织的再上皮化、炎症细胞浸润、肉芽组织厚度、新生血管形成和胶原纤维密度的情况；通过逆转录-聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)和Western印迹检测术后不同时点MMP-9、TIMP-1在伤口组织中的表达情况。结果:糖尿病大鼠伤口愈合明显迟缓。术后第3 d两组间胶原纤维、肉芽组织、新生血管和再上皮化没有差异，术后第7 d糖尿病组以上指标得分均低于正常组，第14 d这种趋势更加明显；而第3 d至14 d，糖尿病组的单核巨噬细胞浸润得分均低于正常组。术后第3 d两组MMP-9表达均达高峰，第7、14 d呈逐渐下降趋势，糖尿病组MMP-9表达水平在各时点均高于正常组；术后第3 d两组TIMP-1表达均达高峰，第7、14 d呈逐渐下降趋势，糖尿病组TIMP-1表达水平在各时点均低于正常组；正常组MMP-9/TIMP-1蛋白水平比值始终维持在一个动态平衡的稳定水平，而糖尿病组却长期处于高水平状态。结论:异常的胶原产生、新生血管重建、炎症反应、再上皮化、肉芽形成可能是糖尿病鼠创面愈合减慢的组织病理学基础；皮肤组织MMP-9/TIMP-1的平衡性改变可能是这种组织病理学异常的重要原因之一。     

Matrix metalloproteinases in preterm prelabor rupture of membranes in the setting of chorioamnionitis: A scoping review

Fetal or gestational membranes extend from the placenta to enclose the fetus and amniotic fluid. While the membranes spontaneously rupture at term in normal pregnancies, they can rupture prematurely before the onset of labor, termed preterm prelabor rupture of membranes (PPROM). PPROM can be triggered by bacterial infection or sterile inflammation in the membranes, known as chorioamnionitis (CAM). The membranes derive their tensile strength from a collagen-rich extracellular matrix (ECM); as such, understanding the enzymes and processes that can degrade the membrane ECM are of paramount importance. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a class of enzymes capable of degrading collagen and other components of the ECM, and can be induced by inflammation. We used a scoping review to address the question of how MMP activity is associated with PPROM, particularly their induction due to sterile or nonsterile CAM. We have found that the most studied MMPs in PPROM were MMPs 2, 8, and 9. Additionally, some MMPs are constitutively active, while others are induced by inflammation. Mechanistic studies of the pathways that induce MMP activation are sparse, and this area is ripe for future studies. Targeting MMP activation could be a future strategy to delay or prevent PPROM.     

Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in thyroid C-cells and medullary thyroid carcinomas

Aims : Hyperplastic C-cells of the thyroid and medullary thyroid carcinomas (MTCs) were studied immunocytochemically for calcitonin, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), chromogranin A, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 and -2. Methods and results : Non-neoplastic C-cells were positive for all these substances whereas MTC tumour cells were relatively weaker stained, and thyroid follicular cells were negative for all the substances studied. We have recently reported that pancreatic islet cells and islet cell tumours were positive for MMPs and TIMPs, and, in addition, anterior pituitary cells and pituitary adenomas and parathyroid gland and its adenomas were also positively stained. The MMP- and TIMP-positive endocrine cells correspond to Pearse's APUD cells, derived from neural crest and endodermal cells. Conclusions : MMPs and TIMPs may well be added as newly recognized markers for neuroendocrine cells. The possible function of MMP-TIMP homeostasis in C-cells and MTCs is discussed.     

Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in thyroid C-cells and medullary thyroid carcinomas

Aims: Hyperplastic C-cells of the thyroid and medullary thyroid carcinomas (MTCs) were studied immunocytochemically for calcitonin, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), chromogranin A, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 and -2. Methods and results: Non-neoplastic C-cells were positive for all these substances whereas MTC tumour cells were relatively weaker stained, and thyroid follicular cells were negative for all the substances studied. We have recently reported that pancreatic islet cells and islet cell tumours were positive for MMPs and TIMPs, and, in addition, anterior pituitary cells and pituitary adenomas and parathyroid gland and its adenomas were also positively stained. The MMP- and TIMP-positive endocrine cells correspond to Pearse's APUD cells, derived from neural crest and endodermal cells. Conclusions: MMPs and TIMPs may well be added as newly recognized markers for neuroendocrine cells. The possible function of MMP-TIMP homeostasis in C-cells and MTCs is discussed.     

Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in some endocrine organs and their tumors

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are single-chain zinc-containing metalloenzymes. The MMP gene family currently includes more than 19 endopeptidases. Both MMP-2 and 9 are widely expressed by many stromal and endothelial cells. Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) form complexes with MMPs, which in turn inhibit active MMPs. MMP and TIMP homeostasis has been implicated in many aspects of both physiological and pathological processes. The latter include tumor invasion and metastasis. Although ductal adenocarcinomas of pancreas were immunocytochemically faintly stained for MMPs and TIMPs, normal pancreatic islets in the normal adjacent pancreas were found to be strongly stained for MMPs and TIMPs. Five kinds of islet cell tumors, including insulinomas, gastrinomas, glucagonomas, pancreatic polypeptide- (PP) omas, and nonfunctioning islet cell tumor, were stained for MMPs and TIMPs. The tumor cells were relatively weakly stained for MMPs and TIMPs compared to normal islets. Similarly, weaker staining for MMPs and TIME’s was noted for medullary thyroid carcinomas (MTCs) and pituitary adenomas. There was no correlation between immunostaining intensity of protein hormones and MMPs and TIMPs. However parathyroid hyperplasia, adenoma, and carcinoma that stained for MMPs and TIMPs were weaker, which paralleled the weaker immunostaining for parathyroid hormone and chromogranin. This weaker staining for MMPs and TIMPs in endocrine tumors may imply a less significant role of tumor invasion and metastasis by MMP and TIMP homeostasis. At present, immunocytochemical staining for MMPs and TIMPs may well be used as new markers for neuroendocrine cells and their tumors.     

Matrix metalloproteinases as mediators of reproductive function

The organs of the adult reproductive system can undergo extensive remodelling, experiencing rapid changes in tissue mass and function. Much of this matrix remodelling is attributed to the action of matrix metalloproteinases. Matrix metalloproteinase family members are expressed in a highly-regulated manner in many reproductive processes, including menstruation, ovulation, implantation, and uterine, breast, and prostate involution. Metalloproteinase concentrations and activity can be regulated by reproductive hormones, as well as by growth factors and cytokines that participate in reproductive events. In addition to playing a role in the loss of connective tissue mass, the metalloproteinases can influence the phenotype of the cellular components of the tissues, altering basic cellular functions such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. This review focuses on the expression of matrix metalloproteinases in reproductive tissues, and discusses the evidence supporting a role for these enzymes in modulating the structure and function of reproductive organs.      

基质金属蛋白酶与肿瘤侵袭和转移

基质金属蛋白酶与肿瘤侵袭和转移高庆吴秉铨从原位的增殖性肿瘤到侵袭转移癌的演进过程中，肿瘤细胞必须具备降解细胞外基质的能力。细胞外基质的降解主要依靠蛋白水解酶。基质金属蛋白酶（ｍａｔｒｉｘｍｅｔａｌｏｐｒｏｔｅｉｎａｓｅ，ＭＭＰ）是四类蛋白水解酶：丝氨...     

Matrix metalloproteinases and atherosclerosis. Therapeutic aspects

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play a key role in the physiology of connective tissue development, morphogenesis and wound healing, but their unregulated activity has been implicated in numerous disease processes including arthritis, tumor cell metastasis and atherosclerosis. MMP family consists of at least 20 members; MMPs are produced by the different cell types (vascular smooth muscle cells, monocytes, endothelial cells) involved in the atheromatous plaque formation and participate to extracellular matrix remodelling and cell infiltration or migration. Since excessive tissue remodelling and increased matrix metalloproteinase activity have been demonstrated during atherosclerotic lesion progression (including plaque disruption), MMPs represent a potential target for therapeutic intervention to modify vascular pathology, by restoring the MMP/TIMP physiological equilibrium. This review highlights the structures of MMPs and their physiological inhibitors, the Tissue Inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs), and describes the current developments in pharmacological MMP inhibition.