Risk factors for primary postpartum haemorrhage

The objective of the study was to determine which background factors predispose women to primary postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) at the Obafemi Awolowo University Hospital. The study consisted of 101 women who developed PPH after a normal vaginal delivery and 107 women with normal unassisted vaginal delivery without PPH Both cases and controls were investigated for sociodemographic risk factors, medical and obstetric histories, antenatal events and labour and delivery outcomes. Data were abstracted from the medical and delivery records and risks were estimated by multivariate logistic regression. The results of the unvariate analysis revealed a number of potential risk factors for PPH but after adjustment by logistic regression three factors remained significant. These were prolonged second and third stages of labour and non-use of oxytocics after vaginal delivery. Previously hypothesised risk factors for PPH such as grand multiparity, primigravidity and previous episodes of PPH were not significantly associated with PPH. We conclude that primary PPH in this population is mostly associated with prolonged second and third stages of labour and non use of oxytocics. Efforts to reduce the incidence of PPH should not only be directed at proper management of labour but also training and retraining of primary health care workers and alternative health care providers in the early referral of patients with prolonged labour.     

Obstetric risk factors and outcome of pregnancies complicated with early postpartum hemorrhage: a population-based study.

OBJECTIVE: The study was aimed to identify obstetric risk factors for early postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) in singleton gestations and to evaluate pregnancy outcome. STUDY DESIGN: A comparison between consecutive singleton deliveries with and without early PPH was performed. Deliveries occurred during the years 1988-2002 in a tertiary medical center. A multivariate logistic regression model was constructed in order to define independent risk factors for PPH. RESULTS: Postpartum hemorrhage complicated 0.4% (n = 666) of all deliveries enrolled in the study (n = 154 311). Significant risk factors for PPH, identified using a multivariable analysis, were: retained placenta (OR 3.5, 95%CI 2.1-5.8), failure to progress during the second stage of labor (OR 3.4, 95%CI 2.4-4.7), placenta accreta (OR 3.3, 95%CI 1.7-6.4), lacerations (OR 2.4, 95%CI 2.0-2.8), instrumental delivery (OR 2.3, 95%CI 1.6-3.4), large for gestational age (LGA) newborn (OR 1.9, 95%CI 1.6-2.4), hypertensive disorders (OR 1.7, 95%CI 1.2-2.1), induction of labor (OR 1.4, 95%CI 1.1-1.7) and augmentation of labor with oxytocin (OR 1.4, 95%CI 1.2-1.7). Women were assigned into three different groups according to the assessed severity of PPH, assuming that the severe cases were handled by revision of the birth canal under anesthesia, and the most severe cases required in addition treatment with blood products. A significant linear association was found between the severity of bleeding and the following factors: vacuum extraction, oxytocin augmentation, hypertensive disorders as well as perinatal mortality, uterine rupture, peripartum hysterectomy and uterine or internal iliac artery ligation (p < 0.001 for all variables). CONCLUSION: Hypertensive disorder, failure to progress during the second stage of labor, oxytocin augmentation, vacuum extraction and LGA were found to be major risk factors for severe PPH. Special attention should be given after birth to hypertensive patients, and to patients who underwent induction of labor or instrumental delivery, as well as to those delivering LGA newborns.     

改良产后出血预测评分表在阴道分娩中的预测价值

目的探讨产后出血高危因素及改良产后出血预测评分表在阴道分娩中的预测价值。 方法回顾性分析2017年12月至2018年5月在中山大学附属第三医院产科行阴道分娩并纳入研究的产妇616例,根据是否发生产后出血分为研究组(36例)和对照组(580例),收集两组患者的产前、产时及产后资料,使用Logistic回归筛选危险因素;运用改良产后出血预测评分表对产后出血各高危因素进行评估,计算产前、产时、产后各阶段评分及总评分,计算并比较两组各阶段评分及总评分预测产后出血的ROC曲线下面积。 结果两组患者在产程时长是否正常(aOR＝3.12,95%CI：1.14~8.50)、是否自然临产(aOR＝2.57,95%CI：1.05~6.30)、产后进食少(aOR＝12.27,95%CI：2.52~58.82)方面的比较,P值均<0.05。总评分对产后出血预测效果最好,ROC曲线下面积为0.734(0.697~0.768)。当总评分≥5分时,预测产后出血的敏感度为77.78%,特异度为57.93%。 结论产程异常、人工引产、产后进食少是产后出血的独立危险因素。改良的产后出血预测评估表具有良好的预测效果。     

Risk factors for early postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) in the first vaginal delivery,and obstetrical outcomes in subsequent pregnancy

Objective: To investigate risk factors for postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) in vaginal deliveries and the influence of previous PPH on the subsequent pregnancy.

Study design: A retrospective cohort study including first singleton deliveries between the years 1988 and 2012 was performed comparing deliveries with and without PPH. In addition, perinatal outcomes of the subsequent pregnancy were evaluated. Multivariable analysis was performed to control for confounders.

Results: PPH complicated 0.8% of all first vaginal deliveries. Significant risk factors for PPH in vaginal delivery, using a multiple logistic regression model, were: post-term pregnancy, fertility treatments, hypertensive disorders, labor dystocia during the 2nd, and perineal tears grade 2 and 3, respectively. Previous PPH was found to be an independent risk factor for PPH in the subsequent pregnancy. Moreover, previous PPH was found to be a significant risk factor for cesarean section (CS) deliver, to complicate delivery with revision of uterus cavity, anemia, and to require blood transfusion.

Conclusion: Previous PPH poses a risk for recurrent PPH in subsequent delivery and an increased risk for CS. As PPH remains one of the major causes of maternal morbidity, this study strengthens the need for a comprehensive evaluation of prior PPH as a major risk factor for PPH recurrence.     

Pregnancy outcome in Factor XI deficiency: incidence of miscarriage, antenatal and postnatal haemorrhage in 33 women with Factor XI deficiency

Pregnancy complications in women with Factor XI deficiency were assessed in this retrospective analysis. All nonnulliparous women registered with Factor XI deficiency in the East Midlands region were included. Each woman was classified into 'bleeder' or 'nonbleeder'. Rates of antenatal and postnatal bleeding and miscarriage rate were recorded. A total of 33 women had 105 pregnancies. Pregnancy and delivery was uneventful in 70% of the cases. Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) appears increased in women with a 'bleeding' phenotype with a highly significant difference between 'bleeders' and 'nonbleeders' (relative risk [RR] 7.2; CI 1.99–25.9). Miscarriage rate appeared unchanged. We conclude that PPH is increased in a subgroup with a bleeding phenotype. Larger studies are needed to define the underlying factors.     

Postpartum haemorrhage--a continuing problem

The factors responsible for postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) in singleton vaginal deliveries, not complicated by a retained placenta, were identified by comparing labour characteristics in 86 women who had a PPH (blood loss greater than 500 ml) with 351 women whose blood loss at delivery was less than 350 ml. Primiparity, induction of labour by amniotomy/oxytocin, forceps delivery, long first and second stages, oxytocin compared with syntometrine (oxytocin plus ergometrine maleate), as a prophylactic oxytocic, were identified as significant risk factors. Epidural analgesia contributed indirectly to an increase in the risk of postpartum haemorrhage. The changes in labour ward practice over the last 20 years have resulted in the re-emergence of PPH as a significant problem.     

Postpartum haemorrhage—a continuing problem

Summary. The factors responsible for postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) in singleton vaginal deliveries, not complicated by a retained placenta, were identified by comparing labour characteristics in 86 women who had a PPH (blood loss > 500 ml) with 351 women whose blood loss at delivery was < 350 ml. Primiparity, induction of labour by amniotomy/ oxytocin, forceps delivery, long first and second stages, oxytocin com-pared with syntometrine (oxytocin plus ergometrine maleate), as a prophylactic oxytocic, were identified as significant risk factors. Epi-dural analgesia contributed indirectly to an increase in the risk of postpartum haemorrhage. The changes in labour ward practice over the last 20 years have resulted in the re-emergence of PPH as a significant problem.     

阴道分娩产后出血发病率及影响因素的队列研究

目的探讨上海市孕产妇阴道分娩产后出血相关的影响因素。方法将2015年6月—2016年5月期间在上海市4家医院首次建卡产检的孕妇纳入队列,随访至分娩,收集其建卡、初次产检和分娩的资料。计算阴道分娩产后出血的发生率,并用独立样本t检验或方差分析进行单因素分析,用多元线性回归分析探讨阴道分娩产后出血量的影响因素。结果共收集到阴道分娩孕产妇资料3 495份,产后出血(500 mL)发生率为1.5%(53/3 495),产后出血量平均为(255.6±156.4)mL。多元线性回归分析显示,产次每增加1次,产后出血量下降13.3 mL;合并妊娠期高血压疾病和分娩巨大儿分别可使产后出血量升高42.3 mL和22.3 mL。结论上海市孕产妇阴道分娩产后出血发生率较低,提倡孕期的合理增重有利于控制产后出血量,对于初产妇和合并妊娠期高血压疾病的孕妇应积极防范产后出血的发生。     

Routine postpartum ultrasonography in the prediction of puerperal uterine complications.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether there is a relationship between the findings of routine postpartum ultrasonographic scanning and puerperal uterine complications such as heavy delayed postpartum hemorrhage, retained products of conception, and need for uterine curettage; and to estimate the value of both routine ultrasonographic scanning and clinical data in the prediction of these complications. METHODS: In this cohort study 265 women were examined ultrasonographically on postpartum Days 1, 14, 42 following uncomplicated vaginal or cesarean deliveries. They were divided into a low-risk (n=149) and a high-risk (n=116) group according to predefined risk factors for puerperal uterine complications. The ultrasonographic findings were dichotomized into no masses (endometrial strip, endometrial fluid, or hyperechoic foci) or a definite intrauterine echogenic/heterogeneous mass (IUM, >15 mm in diameter). RESULTS: The presence of risk factor(s) was significantly associated with uterine subinvolution, IUM, heavy delayed postpartum hemorrhage (PPH), and a need for uterine curettage. Multivariable logistic regression analysis for the risk factor(s) that can predict the occurrence of heavy delayed PPH showed that the presence of an IUM was the most predictive variable. The presence of an IUM and heavy delayed PPH predicted uterine curettage in 61.3% and 37.5% of patients, respectively. CONCLUSION: Routine uterine scanning on Day 1 and Day 14 postpartum is an easy, inexpensive, valuable method that can be offered to women at high risk for delayed PPH due to subinvolution or the presence of an IUM. Accordingly, it may be predicted which women will benefit from uterine curettage in up to two-thirds of cases.     

Laparoscopic bipolar coagulation of uterine vessels to manage delayed postpartum hemorrhage

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is a big challenge for obstetricians. Fertility-preserving procedures are encouraged, especially in young women. Bilateral hypogastric (internal iliac) artery ligation, bilateral uterine artery ligation after vaginal delivery or after cesarean delivery, and uterine artery embolization are well documented vascular occlusive methods for treating PPH. To our knowledge, the laparoscopic approach to uterine artery ligation has not been reported. A 29-year-old woman experienced delayed PPH. Although curettage of the uterine cavity to remove retained placenta was performed, bleeding did not stop. We successfully performed a relatively new method--laparoscopic bipolar coagulation of uterine vessels--to stop bleeding and preserve the uterus.     

Postpartum haemorrhage and haematological management

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is a leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Recent report of the Centre for Maternal and Child Enquiries (CMACE) in the United Kingdom, which was previously called Confidential Enquiries into Maternal and Child Health (CEMACH), confirmed a reduction in maternal deaths during the last Triennium (2006–2008). This is attributed to improvements in timely diagnosis and prompt and aggressive treatment. PPH is now the sixth most common direct cause of maternal deaths in the U.K. World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that postpartum haemorrhage accounts for 25% of maternal deaths worldwide. Substandard care and ‘too little being done too late’ remain a significant contributor of maternal deaths.Primary PPH refers to a blood loss from the genital tract of 500 ml or more within 24 h of delivery (or >1000 ml during caesarean section). Secondary PPH refers to an excessive blood loss between 24 h and 6 weeks after birth. Massive PPH refers to a blood loss of over 2000 ml (or >30% of blood volume) and is associated with increased maternal morbidity and mortality. A timely, multi-disciplinary and systematic approach to restore the volume, clotting system and the oxygen carrying capacity of blood, whilst steps are taken to arrest bleeding, is essential to save life.Primary postpartum haemorrhage is caused by uterine atony, genital tract trauma, retained placental tissue and membranes after birth or coagulopathy. The latter may not only be a cause of PPH, but also could be an effect of massive haemorrhage due to a ‘washout phenomenon’. Rapid and profuse bleeding results in loss of platelets and clotting factors, that get ‘washed out’. This may lead to a depletion of coagulation factors and resultant bleeding.     

Benefits of cord blood collection in the prevention of post-partum hemorrhage: a cohort study

Objective: The aim of this study was to assess the benefit of umbilical cord drainage through cord blood collection (CBC) for the prevention of post-partum hemorrhage (PPH).

Methods: This is a retrospective cohort study based on data collected prospectively including all vaginal delivery of singletons pregnancies after 37 weeks of gestation between July 2011 and May 2013 at the Strasbourg Teaching Hospital. We performed a univariate comparison of PPH risk factors with χ² tests and then we built multivariate logistic regressions to predict PPH, severe PPH (>1000?cc), retained placenta over 30?min and manual removal of the placenta.

Results: A total of 7810 vaginal deliveries were analyzed, among which 1957 benefited from CBC (25%). In the CBC group, 71 PPH (3.6%) were observed versus 260 (4.4%) in the control group (p?=?0.12). In multivariate analysis, after adjustment on PPH risk factors, CBC revealed to be a protective factor of PPH: OR?=?0.69 (95% CI 0.50–0.97; p?=?0.03). CBC is neither a significant predictive factor of severe PPH, time to placental delivery nor rate of manual removal of the placenta.

Conclusions: In our study, CBC and thus umbilical cord drainage was a protective factor against PPH but it did reduce neither retained placenta nor the need for artificial placental delivery.     

Low molecular weight heparin use during pregnancy and risk of postpartum hemorrhage: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction: Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal mortality worldwide with a prevalence rate of approximately 6%. Although most cases of PPH have no identifiable risk factors, the incidence of PPH has been associated to the thromboprophylaxis in pregnancy with low molecular weight heparin (LMWH). Thus, the aim of the study is to evaluate the risk of PPH in cases of pregnant women exposed to LMWH.

Materials and methods: Electronic research was performed in OVID, Scopus, ClinicalTrials.gov, MEDLINE, the PROSPERO International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials through April 2016. We included randomized controlled trials, cohort and case-control studies of women who underwent thromboprophylaxis with LMWH during pregnancy compared to a control group (either placebo or no treatment). The primary outcome was the incidence of PPH. The summary measures were reported as relative risk (RR) or as mean differences (MD) with 95% confidence interval (CI).

Results: Eight studies including 22,162 women were analyzed. Of the 22,162 women, 1320 (6%) were administered LMWH, 20,842 (94%) women formed the nonexposed group (control group). Women treated with LMWH had a higher risk of PPH (RR 1.45, 95%CI 1.02–2.05) compared to controls; there was no difference in mean of blood loss at delivery (MD ?32.90, 95%CI 68.72–2.93) and in risk of blood transfusion at delivery (RR 1.24, 95%CI 0.62–2.51), respectively.

Conclusions: Women who receive LMWH during pregnancy have a significantly higher risk of developing PPH. Women who receive LMWH during pregnancy have neither significantly higher mean blood loss at delivery nor higher risk of blood transfusion.     

Cost Implications of Using Carbetocin Injection to Prevent Postpartum Hemorrhage in a Canadian Urban Hospital

ObjectiveRecent World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations regarding uterotonics for the prevention of postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) state that carbetocin should be considered a first-line prophylactic agent for all births where its cost is comparable to other effective uterotonics. This study evaluated whether a room temperature stable formulation of carbetocin met this recommendation in a Canadian urban hospital setting.MethodsA decision tree model was developed to assess the financial implications of replacing oxytocin with carbetocin as a first-line prophylactic agent for PPH prevention in a Greater Toronto Area (GTA) hospital. The analysis accounted for the mode of delivery, efficacies of carbetocin and oxytocin in PPH prevention, occurrence of PPH-related health outcomes, and health care resource costs for PPH interventions.ResultsThis study found that a GTA hospital, with 3242 deliveries per year, could save over CAD $349 000 annually by switching to room temperature stable carbetocin for PPH prevention. Carbetocin was able to lower institution costs by reducing the use of health care resources for PPH management in low-risk and high-risk PPH patients. The cost-saving potential of carbetocin relative to oxytocin was largely attributed to its greater efficacy in preventing the consequences of PPH.ConclusionThe use of room temperature stable carbetocin as a first-line prophylactic agent for PPH prevention meets WHO recommendations regarding uterotonics for PPH in a GTA hospital. The model from this study can be used to determine the financial impact of switching from oxytocin to carbetocin in other jurisdictions while diversifying a hospital's pool of PPH prophylactic agents.     

产后出血危险因素及高危评分系统临床价值研究

目的 探讨发生产后出血的危险因素,以及建立产后出血高危评分系统和风险预测方程的临床应用价值。方法 选择2008年12月至2009年12月在福建省妇幼保健院进行系统产前检查并住院分娩的212例产后出血患者作为病例组,采用1∶2病例对照研究方法选择同期住院分娩未发生产后出血的424例产妇作为对照组;采用单因素分析筛选产后出血高危因素。在全国产后出血防治协作组拟定“产后出血预测评分表”（简称“评分表”）基础上,用筛选出的高危因素建立较全面的“产后出血高危评分系统”（简称“评分系统”）。通过受试者工作特性（receiver–operating characteristics,ROC）曲线下面积（AUC）评价并比较评分表和评分系统工作效能。结果 产后出血发生率为3.07%,其中严重产后出血发生率为15.56%。产后出血危险因素有孕妇年龄、产次、人工流产史、孕早期体重指数（BMI）、产前宫底高度、双胎或多胎妊娠、产前血小板计数（PLT）、前置胎盘、妊娠期高血压疾病、妊娠合并子宫肌瘤、胎儿腹围、羊水过多、分娩方式、子宫切口延裂、产道裂伤、第一产程异常、第三产程延长、胎盘粘连或植入、新生儿体重。用评分系统评分,若总评分≥6分或产前评分≥4分者发生产后出血危险性明显增加。评分表预测产后出血的ROC曲线AUC为0.657,评分系统评估产后出血的AUC为0.805。产后出血风险预测方程为：Z=1-1/［1+exp(-3.216+0.482×产前评分+0.452×产时产后评分)］或Z=1-1/［1+exp(-3.187+0.469×总评分)］;严重产后出血风险预测方程为：Z=1-1/［1+exp(-3.715+0.146×总评分)］。结论　产后出血发生与孕妇及胎儿因素、妊娠并发症及合并症、产程等均密切相关。评分系统总评分≥6分者或产前评分≥4分者应纳入产后出血重点监护范围。评分系统与评分表相比有较强预测产后出血的效能。     

Management of massive postpartum haemorrhage and coagulopathy

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) continues to remain the leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Whilst this is especially true in resource limited countries, it also remains a significant problem in developed countries. The traditional definition of primary PPH is blood loss from the genital tract of 500 ml or more within 24 h of delivery (or >1000 ml during caesarean section). Secondary PPH refers to an excessive blood loss between 24 h and 6 weeks, postnatally. Massive PPH refers to a blood loss of over 2000 ml (or >30% of blood volume) and hence, is an obstetric emergency that requires a systematic, multi-disciplinary approach to restore the volume, clotting system and the oxygen carrying capacity of blood, whilst steps are taken to arrest bleeding as quickly as possible.The last confidential enquiry into maternal deaths (CEMACH, 2003–2005) in the UK cited ‘haemorrhage’ as the third highest cause of direct maternal deaths with 6.6 deaths per million maternities. This report found that 58% of these deaths may have been preventable and ‘too little being done, too late’ (failure to appreciate clinical picture, delay in instituting appropriate treatment, delay is summoning senior help and system failures) continues to contribute to maternal morbidity and mortality, even in the developed world.Massive obstetric haemorrhage may occur in the antepartum (placenta praevia, placental abruption and placenta accreta) or postpartum period. It is has been observed that the incidence of massive PPH is likely to be increasing due to the increased incidence of risk factors such as morbidly adherent placenta secondary to previous caesarean sections and maternal obesity. However, massive obstetric haemorrhage and the resultant coagulopathy can occur in women deemed to be at ‘low risk’ and hence, all clinicians managing women during pregnancy and labour need to possess knowledge and skills to recognize symptoms, signs and complications of massive obstetric haemorrhage. This may ensure institution of timely and appropriate treatment that could save lives.     

不同年代产后出血346例临床特点分析

目的 通过对我院产后出血的病例进行回顾性分析，比较不同年代产后出血病例特点的变化。方法 对1993～1995年、2002-2004年共346例产后出血病例分为前后3年两组进行回顾性对比分析，包括年龄、孕周、产次、分娩方式、产后出血原因、分娩前后血红蛋白（HB）和血球压积（HCV）变化等指标。结果 2002年-2004年产后出血发生率较1993年～1995年明显上升。后3年产妇年龄较前3年增加。剖宫产分别占两组产后出血病例的49．04％和51．24％。宫缩乏力仍然是导致产后出血的第一位原因（51．9％vs58．7％），胎盘因素有显著上升（14．1％VS20．7％）。产后出血产妇分娩前后血红蛋白下降值和血球压积下降值后3年明显低于前3年（P〈0．05）。6年间因产后出血行子宫切除7例，其中5例为胎盘因素。结论 宫缩乏力仍是产后出血的首要原因，胎盘因素导致的产后出血近年来有所增加，成为产后出血的第二位原因，并成为导致子宫切除的严重产后出血的主要原因。     

Comparison between emergent and elective delivery in women with placenta accreta

Abstract

Objective: To identify possible predictive factors associated with emergent delivery of antenatally diagnosed placenta accreta and to estimate association between emergent delivery and adverse maternal outcomes in comparison to elective delivery.

Methods: A retrospective study of all patients with placenta accreta diagnosed antenatally and confirmed pathologically, who were delivered between 2000 and 2010. Baseline characteristics and outcomes of emergent deliveries were compared with elective deliveries.

Results: A total of 48 women met inclusion criteria, of which 24 (50%) were delivered emergently. 79.2% of emergent deliveries were preceded by antenatal bleeding (p?=?0.0005), and 62.5% were preceded by recurrent bleeding (p?=?0.001). Comparison of elective and emergent deliveries revealed no clinical significant difference in maternal outcome.

Conclusions: Antenatal bleeding is associated with an increased risk of emergent delivery. Emergent delivery in a tertiary care facility with immediate access to blood bank and ICU capabilities does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of adverse maternal outcomes. Consequently, some patients may be candidates for delivery later than 34 weeks of gestation.     

血清PLT、Hb及D-D水平预测产后出血的临床价值

目的 分析血清血小板计数(PLT)、血红蛋白(Hb)及D-二聚体(D-D)水平在预测产后出血(PPH)中的临床价值.方法 100例临产孕妇依据产后是否出血(出血量≥500 mL)分为PPH组(n=25)、对照组(n=75),比较两组产前24h内血清PLT、Hb及D-D水平及其与出血程度关系,分析PLT、Hb及D-D对P...     

Primary postpartum haemorrhage in an Australian tertiary hospital: a case-control study

The present study aimed to determine the incidence of primary postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) after vaginal birth at an Australian tertiary hospital, and to investigate risk factors for primary PPH at this hospital. A case-control study of women delivering vaginally at a tertiary hospital from February to June 2003 was performed. Demographic, antenatal, intrapartum, treatment and outcome data were abstracted from patient records. The study population comprised 125 cases and 125 controls, with a primary PPH rate of 12.1 per 100 vaginal births. Risk factors on multivariate analysis were past history of PPH, second stage labour > 60 min, forceps delivery, and incomplete placenta/ragged membranes.