Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder simultaneously affecting both B and T cells after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation

Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is usually an aberrant proliferation of EBV-infected B cells. We report the case of a 31-year-old man with severe aplastic anemia who suffered PTLD 42 days post-BMT from an unrelated donor. At the onset of PTLD, peripheral blood lymphocytes were comprised of 40% CD20(+) cells, 3% CD4(+) cells, and 56% CD8(+) cells. A highly sensitive in situ hybridization (ISH) method was used to detect EBV-encoded small non-polyadenylated RNA 1 (EBER-1) in 33.9% of sorted CD20(+) cells, 4.4% of CD4(+) cells, and 1.4% of CD8(+) cells. Each T-cell fraction contained less than 0.034% of contaminated EBV-infected B cells. Clonal proliferation of both B and T cells was demonstrated by Southern blotting. The patient did not respond to donor leukocyte infusion and died due to deterioration of PTLD. At autopsy, examination of multiple organs revealed B-cell (rather than T-cell) infiltration. This case clearly indicates that EBV can simultaneously infect B and T cells and can induce clonal proliferation of both lymphocyte subsets in severely immunocompromised patients.     

Epstein-Barr virus early-antigen antibodies before allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation as a marker of risk of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders

The occurrence of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLDs) after allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) represents a clinical problem. Pretransplant Epstein–Barr virus serological status and viral load was determined in 21 recipients and 28 control transplanted patients, with (+) and without (−) PTLD, respectively. Early-antigen immunoglobulin G (EA-IgG) was detected in 12/21 PTLD⁺ patients, but only 2/28 PTLD⁻ patients ( P  = 0·00023, Odds ratio = 17·42). High viral load was detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells at PTLD diagnosis, independently of deleted LMP1 . Detection of EA-IgG in allo-HSCT recipients pretransplantation might be considered as risk factor for PTLD development.     

Post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disorder of the adrenal gland after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: report of two cases and literature review

Post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is one of the life‐threatening complications after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and solid organ transplantation (SOT), and it is associated almost exclusively with Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). We herein report 2 cases of EBV‐associated PTLD after allogeneic HSCT localized in the adrenal gland. Both patients developed adrenal tumor within 3 months after HSCT and were successfully treated with rituximab or tapering immunosuppressive agents. Both remained alive without recurrence. A literature review revealed 12 reported cases of PTLD involving the adrenal gland, but the adrenal gland was involved as one of the lesions of advanced‐stage PTLD after SOT. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to show cases of isolated EBV‐associated adrenal PTLD after HSCT. PTLD should be recognized as one of the causes of isolated adrenal tumor after HSCT.     

Pediatric post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder after cardiac transplantation

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a well recognized and potentially fatal complication after pediatric cardiac transplantation. PTLD encompasses a wide spectrum, ranging from benign hyperplasia to more aggressive lymphoma. Most cases are Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-related B-cell tumors resulting from impaired immunity due to immunosuppressive therapy. Pediatric recipients, often seronegative for EBV at transplantation, have a greater risk for PTLD than adults. The clinical presentation of PTLD varies from isolated lymphadenopathy to systemic disease; common sites involved are gastrointestinal tract, lung or airway, and cervical lesions. Timely and accurate diagnosis based on histological examination of biopsy tissue is essential for early intervention. Immunostaining for EBV and evaluation for clonality are needed. For prophylaxis when EBV viral loads are increasing or for initial treatment of early lesions or polymorphic PTLD, a reduction in immunosuppressive treatment is a key component of therapy, but caution is needed for possible rebound allograft rejection. Chemotherapy is indicated for patients with poor response to reduced immunosuppression and for highly aggressive monomorphic PTLD. The use of rituximab in combination with chemotherapy is effective. For the time being, avoiding excessive immunosuppression is the most effective strategy for reducing the incidence of PTLD. Calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) minimization with proliferation signal inhibitors (PSIs) or conversion from a CNI to a PSI might be useful for preventing both development of PTLD and allograft rejection.     

造血干细胞移植后淋巴细胞增殖性疾病的临床研究

目的回顾性分析造血干细胞移植（HSCT）后淋巴细胞增殖性疾病（VTLO）发生率及临床特点,以提高对本病的鉴别诊断能力。方法选自2002年8月至2006年10月行异基因-HSCT患者585例。供者来源分别为：相合同胞327例,HLA不合亲源供者208例,非血缘供者44例,脐带血6例。PTLD确诊依据为病理学检查,包括以器官侵袭和淋巴结结构破坏为特点的各种弥漫性淋巴增殖改变;如果无法获得病理结果,PTLD的临床诊断依据为：经验性抗生素治疗无效的高热伴淋巴结肿大,伴或不伴EB病毒负荷增高,临床能除外其他常见原因的发热。结果PTLD发生率在配型相合移植组0．3％（1／327）,该例患者为减低预处理剂量的移植,加用了抗胸腺细胞球蛋白（ATG）,常规移植的患者无一例发生咖,半相合移植组为3．4％（7／208）,非血缘移植组2．3％（1／44）;PTLD发生率在应用ATG的患者中为3．4％（9／262）,高于常规移植不用ATG者（0／323,P=0．005）;半相合移植和非血缘供者的移植中PTLD发生率高于配型相合的常规移植（7／208,1／44,0／323,P=0．036）。诊断PTLD9例中4例为病理检查确诊,5例为临床诊断。WILD临床表现不一,2例发生在移植半年之后,表现为局部包块或纵隔肿大,病理证实为小淋巴细胞性淋巴瘤;其他7例患者均发生在移植后近期（32—78d）,表现为经验性抗生素治疗无效的高热伴颈部淋巴结进行性肿大,4例很快出现呼吸衰竭,1例出现昏迷。9例中1例经减免疫抑制剂和用皮质激素治疗后恢复,1例抗病毒药和供者淋巴细胞输注（DLI）后恢复,其余7例均在短期内疾病进展死亡。结论HSCT后WILD是一组进展迅猛、预后极差、临床和病理异质性的疾病,尤其在具备高危因素的患者中更要注意早期识别。     

Impact of EBV infection and immune function assay for lymphoproliferative disorder in pediatric patients after liver transplantation: A single-center experience

Background:Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder(PTLD)is a lethal complication after pediatric liver transplantation,but information regarding risk factors for the development of PTLD remains unclear.This study was to identify characteristics and risk factors of PTLD.Methods:A total of 705 pediatric patients who underwent liver transplantation between January 2017 and October 2018 were studied.Impact of clinical characteristics and Epstein-Barr virus(EBV)infection on the development of PTLD was evaluated.In addition,ImmuKnow assay was adopted in partial patients to analyze the immune status.Results:Twenty-five(3.5%)patients suffered from PLTD with a median time of 6 months(3–14 months)after transplantation.Extremely high tacrolimus(TAC)level was found in 2 fatal cases at PTLD onset.EBV infection was found in 468(66.4%)patients.A higher peak EBV DNA loads(>9590 copies/mL)within 3 months was a significant indicator for the onset of PTLD.In addition,the ImmuKnow assay demonstrated that overall immune response was significantly lower in patients with EBV infection and PTLD(P<0.0001).The cumulative incidence of PTLD was also higher in patients with lower ATP value(≤187 ng/mL,P<0.05).Conclusions:A careful monitoring of EBV DNA loads and tacrolimus concentration might be supportive in prevention of PTLD in pediatric patients after liver transplantation.In addition,application of the ImmuKnow assay may provide guidance in reducing immunosuppressive agents in treatment of PTLD.     

Outcome of treatment of Epstein–Barr virus-related post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder in hematopoietic stem cell recipients: a comprehensive review of reported cases

Abstract: Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) caused by Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is an important complication in high-risk allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients. Before the current methods of anti-EBV therapy were introduced, the mortality from PTLD after HSCT was >80%. With current approaches the mortality from EBV-PTLD can be significantly reduced. The published literature and meeting abstracts were reviewed to assess the impact of different management strategies against EBV-PTLD. This analysis of reported outcomes indicates that preemptive use of rituximab and EBV-cytotoxic  T lymphocytes (CTL) significantly reduced the risk of death due to EBV-PTLD in HSCT recipients with survival rates of 89.7% and 94.1%, respectively. Therapy of established PTLD also reduced the risk of fatal outcome. However, the overall success rates were lower than after preemptive therapy, reaching 63% and 88.2% of total EBV-DNA clearance with rituximab and CTL therapy, respectively. A reduction of immunosuppression and/or donor lymphocyte infusion might also reduce the risk of death due to EBV-PTLD. Although it is difficult to estimate these effects more precisely because of the frequent use of combination therapies, the responses to these modalities can be estimated to be 56.6% and 41.0%, respectively. Finally, chemotherapy seems not to contribute to improved survival of patients with PTLD after HSCT  and antiviral agents are not active against PTLD.     

供者淋巴细胞输注治疗异基因造血干细胞移植后EB病毒相关的淋巴细胞增殖性疾病的疗效和安全性

目的 采用控制数量的供者淋巴细胞输注(DLI)治疗EB病毒(EBV)相关的淋巴细胞增殖性疾病(PTLD),观察其有效性和安全性.方法 2006年11月到2009年11月移植的患者,临床或病理诊断EBV相关的PTLD采用DLI治疗者纳入研究.采用COBE血球分离机应用淋巴细胞程序采集白细胞,首选原供者,次选直系亲缘供者,冻存外周血采集物(G-PB)与移植时输入的外周血干细胞(PBSC)组分相同.控制输入的单个核细胞(PBMC)在(0.5～1.0)×108/kg.原基础免疫抑制剂预防移植物抗宿主病(GVHD),观察疗效及其副作用.结果 PTLD患者9例,输注13例次,输入外周血PBMC 0.8(0.16～1.03)× 108/kg,CD3+T淋巴细胞4.2(1.6～5.7)×107/kg.7例半相合移植患者采用了原供者,有效率为7/7,完全缓解率为6/7,退热中位时间2(1～5)d,淋巴结缩小中位时间6(1～14)d;7例中6例发生GVHD,均为轻中度,得到控制.至今无病存活3例.2例非亲缘HSCT采用了半相合供者的外周血白细胞,仅获得短暂部分疗效.结论 在配型不合/半相合移植中,采用原供者控制细胞数量的DLI并免疫抑制剂预防GVHD治疗EBV相关的PTLD安全有效.最佳方案尚需进一步研究.     

Isolated cerebral manifestation of Epstein–Barr virus‐associated post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disorder after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a case of clinical and diagnostic challenges

N.A. Kittan, F. Beier, K. Kurz, H.H. Niller, L. Egger, W. Jilg, R. Andreesen, E. Holler, G.C. Hildebrandt. Isolated cerebral manifestation of Epstein–Barr virus‐associated post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disorder after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a case of clinical and diagnostic challenges.
Transpl Infect Dis 2011: 13: 524–530. All rights reserved Abstract: We present the case of a 49‐year‐old male patient with Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)‐associated post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) limited to the brain that occurred 6 months after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Clinical symptoms included mental confusion, ataxia, and diplopia. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed cerebellar and periventricular lesions consistent with an inflammatory process. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, but not peripheral blood, was positive for EBV‐DNA, but no malignant cells were found. Brain biopsy was not feasible because of low platelet counts. As we considered a diagnosis of either EBV‐associated encephalitis or PTLD, the patient was treated with rituximab combined with antiviral therapy. However, the cerebral lesions progressed and follow‐up CSF testing revealed immunoglobulin H clonality as evidence of a malignant process. Subsequent treatment attempts included 2 donor lymphocyte infusions (DLI). Despite treatment, the patient died from autopsy‐proven PTLD within 8 weeks of the onset of symptoms. This case demonstrates the clinical and diagnostic challenges of primary cerebral PTLD in a patient following allogeneic HSCT.     

Prospective monitoring of the Epstein–Barr virus DNA by a real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction after allogenic stem cell transplantation

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-related lymphoproliferative disorder (LPD) is a serious complication of haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). To clarify the frequency, natural course and risk factors for LPD, we prospectively monitored 38 allogeneic (allo)-HSCT patients, focusing on the use of anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG). We used a recently developed real-time polymerase chain reaction assay to monitor EBV genome load. The subjects consisted of 19 patients given ATG for conditioning and 19 patients not given ATG. Of the 19 patients given ATG, 47.4% (nine patients) had a significant increase in EBV genome load (10(2.5) copies/microg DNA). Of these nine patients, two developed LPD. Therefore, 10.5% of the patients receiving allo-HSCT with ATG developed LPD. In contrast, none of the 19 patients without ATG had a significantly increased EBV load. The increases in viral load were observed in the second or third month after HSCT. We found that the peak viral loads of LPD patients were > 10(4.0 ) copies/microg DNA. On the other hand, the viral loads of most patients with no symptoms were < 10(2.5) copies/microg DNA. In conclusion, routine monitoring of EBV load during the second and third months after transplantation may benefit patients undergoing HSCT with ATG. We propose that an EBV load > 10(2.5) copies/microg DNA is the reactivation of EBV, and that an EBV load > 10(4.0) copies/microg DNA is indicative of developing LPD.     

Epstein‐Barr virus post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Epstein‐Barr virus (EBV) viremia and post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) are severe complications after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). A series of risk factors have been found to predict EBV viremia and PTLD, including the T‐cell depletion, reduced intensity conditioning, and alternative donor. The rituximab pre‐emptive therapy could improve PTLD prognosis significantly, but the trigger of initiating rituximab pre‐emptive therapy has not been well established. Additionally, EBV‐specific cytotoxic T cell (CTL) is a promising approach to treat EBV‐PTLD.     

Severe post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disorder after living donor liver transplantation

Post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a well‐known complication after transplantation. A living donor liver transplantation was performed on a 31‐year‐old man for fulminant hepatitis. He again developed liver dysfunction after 7 months. He was diagnosed as having acute cellular rejection and the steroid pulse therapy introduced resulted in little improvement. He gradually developed a high fever and right axillary lymphadenopathy appeared. Chest computed tomography (CT) was performed revealing small lung nodules and axillary lymphadenopathy. Because his serological status for Epstein–Barr virus was positive, PTLD was highly suspected and immunosuppression treatment was withdrawn with little improvement. One week later, he developed tachycardia. Chest CT was re‐performed revealing an infiltration to the left cardiac chamber. For diagnosis, axillary lymph node biopsy was performed and during the procedure, he developed ventricular tachycardia (VT). Immunohistological staining revealed PTLD of T lymphocytes, and chemotherapy was introduced on the same day he developed VT. After two cycles of tetrahydropyranyl, adriamycin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisolone and etoposide treatment, he completely recovered. This is a first case report of severe PTLD with VT, and our case implies the feasibility of chemotherapy after the appearance of dissemination symptoms.     

抢先治疗异基因造血干细胞移植后巨细胞病毒感染的临床分析

目的 回顾性分析抢先治疗异基因造血干细胞移植(allo-HSCT)后巨细胞病毒(CMV)感染的临床意义.方法 allo-HSCT治疗的患者103例,采用荧光定量PCR法监测CMV-DNA,并根据其结果抢先治疗CMV相关疾病,分析抢先治疗对于阻止CMV血症发展为CMV相关疾病的意义.结果 103例患者中检测出63例次(51例)CMV-DNA阳性,CMV血症发生率为49.5%,经抢先治疗19例发生CMV相关疾病,发生率为18.4%.60例次CMV血症经更昔洛韦和(或)膦甲酸治疗转阴,1例不可评价疗效,治疗的总有效率为96.8%(60/62).CMV相关疾病的治疗总有效率为89.5%(17/19),2例患者因CMV相关肺炎伴急性GVHD而死亡,CMV相关疾病的直接死亡率为1.9%(2/103).结论 在不进行预防性治疗的前提下,CMV血症和CMV相关疾病发生率未见升高.抢先治疗能有效阻止大部分CMV血症患者发病,并能有效控制CMV相关疾病的进展.     

Age-related immune cell dynamics influence outcomes after allogeneic haematopoietic cell transplantation

An efficient immunological reconstitution construes the pillar for the success of allogeneic haematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) in haematological disorders. Factors influencing post-transplant immune recovery have been largely investigated across multiple cohorts issuing heterogeneous results. Differences in outcomes in adult and paediatric populations suggest an age-related contribution to post-transplant immune reconstitution; however, it is unclear how recipient and donor age may affect the dynamics of single immune cells. Here, we retrospectively collected and analysed immunological data of 174 patients (58 children and 116 adults) consecutively transplanted for haematological disorders in our centre. We show that trajectories of specific immune cells were strictly dependent on recipient age and pretransplant virus exposure, with the strongest effect seen on T CD4+ and B-cell counterparts, while donor age and transplant platforms had a minimal impact. This mirrored different kinetics of immune reconstitution in adult and paediatric patients, with major divergences in immune cell composition in late post-transplant phases, featuring better survival, relapse-free survival and cumulative incidence of pathogen-specific infections in younger patients. Altogether, these findings underpin the importance of recipient age on post-transplant immune cell recovery and define the basic dynamics of the immune reconstitution in paediatric and adult populations as a benchmark for future studies.     

Treatment of rare co‐occurrence of Epstein–Barr virus‐driven post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disorder and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis after allogeneic stem cell transplantation

In both conditions, post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), infection with Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is a key mechanism: almost all PTLD in allogeneic stem cell transplantation (alloSCT) is caused by EBV‐related neoplastic lymphoproliferation, and secondary HLH is most frequently triggered by EBV infection. Therefore, concomitant EBV‐driven PTLD and HLH early after alloSCT require an approach to eliminate EBV and balance immune activation simultaneously. We report on a patient who developed simultaneous PTLD and signs of HLH on day 64 after alloSCT. Treatment was comprised of stopping cyclosporine, short‐course dexamethasone, and 3 courses of rituximab. The patient showed full recovery and complete remission of lymphadenopathy. This result indicates that immediate reduction in EBV‐carrying B cells by rituximab, suppression of general inflammation, and parallel support of reconstitution of long‐term T‐cell function, might be an appropriate therapeutic approach in this rare situation.     

Pre-emptive rituximab based on viraemia and T cell reconstitution: a highly effective strategy for the prevention of Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disease following stem cell transplantation

This study investigated the efficacy of a pre‐emptive strategy based on the combination of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) viraemia and poor T cell reconstitution in preventing post‐transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) following T cell depleted stem cell transplant (SCT). EBV viral load and immune reconstitution were prospectively monitored in 70 consecutive children undergoing SCT following reduced intensity conditioning with alemtuzumab. Patients who developed significant EBV viraemia (>40 000 copies/ml blood) were treated pre‐emptively with rituximab if they were within 3 months of SCT or their CD3 count was <0·3 × 10⁹/l. Of 20/70 patients who developed significant EBV viraemia, 13 received pre‐emptive rituximab. The incidence of PTLD was significantly reduced in the pre‐emptive cohort compared to historical controls (1·4% vs. 21·7%, P = 0·003). This difference was more marked among viraemic patients (2·7% vs. 62·5%P < 0·0001). Patients treated with rituximab demonstrated significantly delayed B cell reconstitution at 1 year post‐SCT but this was not associated with an increase in infectious mortality. In 6/6 patients >3 months post‐SCT who had a CD3 count >0·3 × 10⁹/l, reduced immunosuppression only resulted in successful resolution of EBV viraemia without PTLD. This strategy is safe and highly effective in preventing PTLD following T cell depleted SCT, and directs rituximab therapy to patients at highest risk of this complication.     

Acute eosinophilic pneumonia after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

A 55-year old woman with multiple myeloma was treated with hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). She developed cutaneous and hepatic graft-vs-host disease (GVHD). Sixty-five days after HSCT, acute respiratory failure occurred. A thoracic computed tomography scan showed bilateral patchy infiltrates. Bronchoalveolar lavage revealed 40% eosinophils on differential cell count with no infectious pathogens. These findings were in favor of acute eosinophilic pneumonia. High-dose steroid treatment was started, which had a rapid and lasting favorable course. After HSCT, clinicians should be aware that acute eosinophilic pneumonia mimics infectious pneumonitis and can be associated with GVHD.