The influence of five monoamine genes on trajectories of depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood

The influence of five monoamine candidate genes on depressive symptom trajectories in adolescence and young adulthood were examined in the Add Health genetic sample. Results indicated that, for all respondents, carriers of the dopamine receptor D4 5-repeat allele were characterized by distinct depressive symptom trajectories across adolescence and early adulthood. Similarly, for males, individuals with the monoamine oxidase A 3.5-repeat allele exhibited unique depressive symptom trajectories. Specifically, the trajectories of those with the dopamine receptor D4 5-repeat allele were characterized by rising levels in the transition to adulthood, while their peers were experiencing a normative drop in depressive symptom frequency. Conversely, males with the monoamine oxidase A 3.5-repeat allele were shown to experience increased distress in late adolescence. An empirical method for examining a wide array of allelic combinations was employed, and false discovery rate methods were used to control the risk of false positives due to multiple testing. Special attention was given to thoroughly interrogate the robustness of the putative genetic effects. These results demonstrate the value of combining dynamic developmental perspectives with statistical genetic methods to optimize the search for genetic influences on psychopathology across the life course.     

Height in adolescence predicts polydrug use in adolescence and young adulthood

Prior research has noted a relationship between an individual's height in adolescence and their personality development later in life. This study examined whether height in adolescence--net of possible confounding variables such as age and biological maturity--predicted polydrug use in adolescence and young adulthood. The results revealed a positive and statistically significant association, wherein taller youths were more likely to report using an array of drugs. Supplemental analyses indicated that the relationship is not specific to males as some theories would suggest. Possible mediating mechanisms such as exposure to drug-using peers, self-control, depression, and self-esteem are considered. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

Stability of Type A behavior during adolescence,young adulthood,and adulthood

The stability of Type A behavior was studied in 1737 randomly selected adolescents and young adults. The method used was the AFMS questionnaire, which is based on the Matthews Youth Test for Health and a Swedish version of the Jenkins Activity Survey. Results showed that in males Type A behavior remained at the same degree of stability during adolescence, later adolescence, young adulthood, and adulthood. In girls, Type A behavior showed no stability during adolescence, a high stability during young adulthood, and a slightly lower degree of stability in adulthood.     

Continuities in depression from adolescence to young adulthood: contrasting ecological influences

The prevalence, recurrence, and incidence of depression in adolescence and young adulthood are substantial for both males and females. In this study, we examined social setting variables that influence depression in males and females from adolescence to young adulthood. Rather than focusing on single ecological factors, we examined multiple settings including families, peers, and neighborhoods using longitudinal data from 372 families living in a large eastern urban area. We found that variables related to depression differed for males and females depending on the developmental period being examined. Family and peer variables in adolescence were significantly related to change in depression during the transition to adulthood for males, whereas family and neighborhood variables were marginally significant for females. Family and neighborhood variables in adulthood were significantly related to change in depression for females, and peer variables were significant for both males and females. Overall, contextual variables in adolescence had a more significant impact on change in depression for males, whereas contemporary variables in young adulthood had a more significant impact on change in depression for females.     

Suicidal behaviour in adolescence and subsequent mental health outcomes in young adulthood

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to examine the linkages between suicidal ideation and attempt in adolescence and subsequent suicidal behaviours and mental health in young adulthood. METHOD: Data were gathered during the course of a 25-year longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 1265 New Zealand children. The information collected included: (a) measures of suicidal thoughts and attempts in adolescence (< 18 years); (b) measures of suicidal ideation, suicide attempt, major depression, anxiety disorders, and substance use disorders in young adulthood (18-25 years); and (c) measures of childhood and family background, individual characteristics, and mental disorders in adolescence. RESULTS: After statistical adjustment for confounding factors, suicide attempt in adolescence was associated with increased risks of subsequent suicidal ideation (OR 5.7) suicide attempt (OR 17.8) and major depression (OR 1.5). Those reporting suicidal ideation without suicide attempt showed moderate increases in risks of later suicidal ideation (OR 2.5), suicide attempt (OR 2.0) and major depression (OR 1.6). In addition, there was evidence of an interactive relationship in which suicidal behaviour in adolescence was associated with increased risks of later substance use disorders in females but not males. CONCLUSIONS: Young people reporting suicidal ideation or making a suicide attempt are an at-risk population for subsequent suicidal behaviour and depression. Further research is needed into the reasons for suicidal adolescent females being at greater risk of later substance use disorder.     

Trajectories of marijuana use from adolescence to young adulthood: predictors and outcomes

Semiparametric group-based mixture modeling was used with data from an adolescent school sample (N = 1205) for three purposes. First, five trajectory groups were identified to characterize different patterns of change in the frequency of marijuana use across four waves of assessment during adolescence. These trajectory groups were labeled Abstainers, Experimental Users, Decreasers, Increasers, and High Chronics. Second, trajectory group comparisons were made across eight adolescent risk factors to determine distinctive predictors of the trajectory groups. Findings indicated, for example, that the High Chronic group, relative to the other trajectory groups, had higher levels of delinquency, lower academic performance, more drug using friends, and more stressful life events. Third, adolescent trajectory group comparisons were made across 10 risk behaviors in young adulthood (average subject age = 23.5 years) and the occurrence of psychiatric and substance abuse disorders. Findings indicated some consistency across adolescence to young adulthood with regard to risk factors, and specificity with regard to the prediction of disorders. Adolescent trajectory group membership was significantly associated in young adulthood with cannabis and alcohol disorders but not with major depressive disorders or anxiety disorders.     

Pathological alcohol involvement: a developmental disorder of young adulthood

In 1987, we began a longitudinal study of the offspring of alcoholic parents and have been following this group of young adults from their freshman year in college throughout their transition into later young adulthood. The goal of this review is to highlight some of the findings we consider most important and relevant to the development of pathological alcohol involvement in young adulthood. Courses of pathological alcohol involvement in young adulthood are outlined. Predictors of both the development and course of pathological alcohol use in young adulthood are also addressed, including family history of alcoholism, personality, alcohol use motivations, and role transitions. While certainly a problem in its own right, pathological alcohol involvement can also affect the attainment of important life tasks and success in various life roles. Consequently, we also examine the effects of pathological alcohol involvement on later role transitions and role attainment. Finally, prevention, policy, and treatment issues surrounding this stage of life are discussed.     

The temporal relationship between emotional distress and cigarette smoking during adolescence and young adulthood.

Empirical evidence regarding the causal nature of the relationship between emotional distress and tobacco use in male and female adolescents provides support for both the distress-to-use and the use-to-distress hypotheses. Using a cross-lagged model with 3 waves of data from 2,961 adolescents followed into young adulthood, the authors tested the hypothesis that this relationship changes over time. As hypothesized, emotional distress in Grade 10 was associated with increased smoking in Grade 12 for both boys and girls. Smoking in Grade 12 was in turn associated with increased emotional distress in young adulthood. The addition of 3 third factors (rebelliousness, deviance, and family problems) to the model did not alter the results. Results suggest that the relationship between tobacco use and emotional distress is a dynamic one in which distress initially leads to use but then becomes exacerbated by it over time.     

Anxiety disorders and suicidal behaviours in adolescence and young adulthood: findings from a longitudinal study

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to estimate the extent to which anxiety disorders contribute to an increase in suicidal behaviour after controlling for both observed and non-observed sources of confounding. METHOD: Data were collected from the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS), a 25-year longitudinal study of over 1000 participants. Measures of anxiety disorders [phobia, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder], major depression (MD), substance use disorders, conduct/antisocial personality disorder, stressful life events, unemployment, and suicidal ideation/attempts for subjects aged 16-18, 18-21 and 21-25 years were used to fit random and fixed effects regression models of the associations between anxiety disorders and suicidal behaviours. RESULTS: Anxiety disorders were strongly associated with suicidal ideation/attempts. Any single anxiety disorder increased the odds of suicidal ideation by 7.96 times [95% confidence interval (CI) 5.69-11.13] and increased the rate of suicide attempts by 5.85 times (95% CI 3.66-9.32). Control for co-occurring mental disorders, non-observed fixed confounding factors and life stress reduced these associations [suicidal ideation odds ratio (OR) 2.80, 95% CI 1.71-4.58; suicide attempts incidence rate ratio (IRR) 1.90, 95% CI 1.07-3.39]. Rates of suicidal behaviour also increased with the number of anxiety disorders. Estimates of the population attributable risk suggested that anxiety disorders accounted for 7-10% of the suicidality in the cohort. CONCLUSIONS: Anxiety disorders may be a risk factor for suicidality, even after controlling for confounding, with risks increasing with multiple anxiety disorders. Management of anxiety disorders may be an important component in strategies to reduce population rates of suicide.     

Depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood in men: predictions from parental and contextual risk factors

The current study examined the course of depressive symptoms of young men from early adolescence through young adulthood using a growth model approach and the influence of early parental (i.e.,depressive symptoms, antisocial behaviors, substance use) and contextual (i.e., family income and parental marital transitions) risk factors on both the level of depressive symptoms in early adolescence and on changes over a 10-year period, controlling for young men's early antisocial behavior. On average, depressive symptoms of the youths tended to decrease slightly as they reached young adulthood. Among the parental and contextual risk factors, parent's marital transitions was the most significant predictor for the level of depressive symptoms in early adolescence. Parent's marital transitions and family income were also significantly related to changes in depressive symptoms. As hypothesized, there was a significant interaction effect of paternal and maternal depressive symptoms on depressive symptoms in early adolescence and on changes over time. Maternal depressive symptoms were related to the son's depressive symptoms only when the father's depressive symptoms were also high. The results also suggested that parenting practices did not mediate the effects of the parental and contextual risk factors on the development of depressive symptoms among young men.     

School contextual experiences and longitudinal changes in depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood

The current study examined the direct and multiplicative influences by adolescent school context experiences (disengagement and maltreatment) and contextual characteristics (school minority concentration and school aggregated family poverty) on changes in depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood. Adolescent experiences with maltreatment and school disengagement were positively associated with changes in depressive symptoms over time. In addition, the school disengagement effect was larger among Hispanic youth than African American or European American adolescents. The influence by maltreatment was significantly greater in minority‐concentrated school contexts. Final models that included cross‐level interaction terms explained approximately 10.54% of level 1 variance and 17.10% of level 2 variance (ICC=2%). Adolescent school experiences and being of Hispanic ethnic background exert continued developmental influences on changes in young adult depressive symptoms. Thus, school‐based health promotion programs need to consider school contextual effects on the subsequent development and wellbeing of youth. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The onset of marijuana use from preadolescence and early adolescence to young adulthood

Although it is well documented that intrapersonal and interpersonal risk factors are related to the frequency of marijuana use, much less is known about the initiation of marijuana use. This paper reports on a longitudinal study of the personality, family, peer, and ecological predictors of marijuana onset. Survival analysis was applied to a sample of nonusers of illegal drugs, followed from age 9 years to the 20s. The major findings indicate that (a) youngsters who are unconventional are at a higher risk for marijuana initiation; (b) youngsters who associate with peers who use marijuana or who smoke tobacco themselves are at increased risk for marijuana initiation; (c) youngsters who identify with their parents are less likely to begin marijuana use; and (d) the predictors related to marijuana onset emerged during preadolescence, early adolescence, middle adolescence, late adolescence, and the 20s. Results are discussed within the framework of a family interactional perspective of development. Implications for prevention are discussed.     

'Hardcore drinking': portrayals of alcohol consumption in young women's and men's magazines

Young adults and young women in particular are drinking more alcohol than ever before, with implications for risky behaviours and long-term health. This study explored the ways in which alcohol and drinking were represented in six monthly UK magazines (three targeted at young men, three at young women) across a three-month period (18 magazines). We identified three main discourses across the texts, namely the drug alcohol; masculinity and machismo; and drinking as normality. These discourses constructed women's and men's drinks and drinking behaviours in sharp contrast. Drinking was aligned with traditional masculine images, although new kinds of drinks were aligned with traditional feminine images--and derided in men's magazines. Findings highlight how gender, constructed in relation to the other, is an important aspect of representations of drinking patterns in young adults.     

Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior and alcohol dependence from adolescence to early adulthood

Genetic and environmental influences on symptoms of adult antisocial behavior (AAB) and alcohol dependence at ages 17, 20, and 24 were examined cross-sectionally and longitudinally in 188 monozygotic and 101 dizygotic male twin pairs. A moderate genetic influence on both AAB and alcohol dependence was found at each age, with a substantial proportion of this influence common to the two disorders, suggesting they share susceptibility genes. Biometrical models showed that continuity effects accounted for most of the stable variance in symptoms of both AAB and alcohol dependence, indicating that genetic and environmental effects associated with each of these disorders were similar at each age. Significant cross-lag effects (effects of alcohol dependence contributing to variance in AAB and vice versa) were observed at ages 20 and 24 for both disorders. The largest and theoretically most interesting of these effects indicated that one sixth of the genetic influence on AAB at age 20 was due to genetic effects associated with alcohol dependence at age 17. Thus, alcohol dependence symptoms at age 17 in particular had an effect on antisocial behavior symptoms at age 20, suggesting that alcohol involvement in adolescence may ensnare otherwise desisting youth in persistent antisocial behavior.     

Developmental trajectories of cigarette smoking and their correlates from early adolescence to young adulthood

Smoking initiation typically occurs in adolescence and increases over time into emerging adulthood. Thus adolescence and emerging adulthood compose a critical time period for prevention and intervention efforts. To inform these efforts, this study used latent growth mixture modeling to identify 6 smoking trajectories from ages 13 to 23 among 5,914 individuals: nonsmokers (28%), stable highs (6%), early increasers (10%), late increasers (10%), decreasers (6%), and triers (40%). By age 23, the trajectories merged into 2 distinct groups of low- and high-frequency and their standing on age 23 outcomes reflected this grouping. Consideration of these results can help researchers identify at-risk individuals before their smoking becomes too problematic, providing an opportunity for intervention and possible prevention of nicotine dependence.     

Parenthood probability and pregnancy outcome in patients with a cancer diagnosis during adolescence and young adulthood

BACKGROUND: To compare first-time parenthood probability and pregnancy outcome between cancer patients and the general population. METHODS: Data from a hospital registry on cancer patients aged 15-35 years at diagnosis, including date/type of diagnosis, treatment and date of death, were merged with data from the Cancer Registry and the Medical Birth Registry, providing date of childbirth, IVF, pregnancy outcomes and demographics. RESULTS: The first-time parenthood probability at the age of 35 years was 63% in male patients (n = 463) and 64% in the male general population (n = 367 068). Figures in female patients were 66% (n = 284) compared with 79% in the female general population (n = 349 576) (P = 0.007). A total of 487 male and 251 female cancer patients were childless pre-diagnosis, and 130 male and 104 female cancer patients had one child before diagnosis and at least one birth post-diagnosis. Congenital anomalies were more frequent in first-borns to previously childless male patients [adjusted odds ratio (OR(adj)): 1.5; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.1-2.3]. The risk of low birth weight and preterm delivery after cancer was increased in infants born to female patients, as was perinatal mortality (OR(adj) 2.3; 95% CI: 1.1-5.0) among post-diagnosis first births. CONCLUSIONS: The first-time parenthood probability in 35-year old cancer patients is approximately 60%, which in female patients is significantly reduced compared with the general population. Post-diagnosis pregnancies to female patients are high-risk pregnancies.