Effect of weight loss on T-cell receptor-mediated T-cell function in elite athletes

PURPOSE: Long-term intensive exercise by athletes may sometimes lead to a susceptibility to infections. In the present study, we examined the differences in immune function between amateur wrestlers experiencing weight loss (WL) and those without WL who underwent similar intensive exercise training. METHODS: Eighteen elite amateur wrestlers who attended the Japanese national championship were classified into two groups. One group consisted of those with either slight or no WL (without WL) (<4%; mean, 1%) (N = 9), and the other group consisted of those who needed a significant WL (with WL) (> or = 4%; mean, 7%) (N = 9) during a 1-month period of intensive training. The leukocyte counts as well as the leukocyte subsets in the peripheral blood were examined. The proliferation and cytokine production in T lymphocytes in response to bacterial superantigens (staphylococcal enterotoxin B, streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A) and anti-CD3 antibody (Ab) were also examined. RESULTS: The total leukocyte counts and leukocyte subsets did not differ substantially between the groups and were also not different from the findings before starting the intensive exercise training. Natural killer cells and T cells among the lymphocytes significantly increased in both groups, whereas the increase in each group was not different. Although the T-cell responses to bacterial superantigens were not different, the anti-CD3 Ab-stimulated proliferation and interferon-gamma production of lymphocytes from the wrestlers with WL were significantly lower than those of the wrestlers without WL. This hyporesponsiveness to CD3 stimulation recovered 2 months after the tournament when the wrestlers reverted to their normal weight. CONCLUSION: Intensive exercise in athletes accompanied by a rapid WL was found to compromise the CD3/T-cell receptor-mediated T-cell function in athletes.     

Weight loss and gain in athletes

Guidance from health professionals will assist the significant proportion of athletes who desire a change in their body weight. Athletes who use drastic food or fluid restriction to lose weight may experience negative consequences, including loss of lean tissue, hormonal disturbances, and performance impairment. Excess food consumption for weight gain can increase body fat and risk factors for chronic diseases. Weight change is best done during the off-season, modifying energy intake up or down by 500 kcal/d. Adequate carbohydrate (60%-65%, > 5 g/kg) and protein (15%, 1.2–1.8 g/kg) and a low fat intake (20%-25%) is appropriate for either weight loss or gain. The athletic staff should be knowledgeable about the latest rules related to weight and appropriate weight control methods so they may guide their athletes using modest, safe approaches that will not negatively affect health or performance.     

A study of changes in the spine in weight lifters and other athletes.

The present study was undertaken in sportsmen of those groups of sports activities where weight training exercises constitute a major part of the training. Two groups consisting of 25 weight-lifters and 25 track and field athletes were studied to find out the effect of sports activities and lifting weights on the spine. 84% weight-lifters and 72% track and field athletes suffered from varying abnormalities. Incidence of backache in 25 weight-lifters was 40% and in 25 track and field athletes 48%. Radiological changes were more common in weight-lifters (84%) than in athletes (72%). Reduction in lumbar lordosis was found in three cases (12%) in both the groups. Obtuse angle deformity of vertebral margins was found in 11 cases (44%) amongst weight-lifters and six cases (24%) amongst athletes. Osteophytic formation was found in six cases (24%) in weight-lifters and four cases (16%) in athletes. Schmorl's node were noticed in five cases (20%) amongst weight-lifters and seven cases (28%) amongst athletes. The incidences of spondylosis and Schmorl's node were found only in those cases who had been doing weight training exercises for more than four years.     

Weight loss behaviors in Brazilian mixed martial arts athletes

Sport Sciences for Health - The aim of this study was to investigate the weight loss behaviors among Brazilian professional mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes. One hundred and seventy nine Brazilian...     

Excessive length of iliac arteries in athletes with flow limitations measured by magnetic resonance angiography

PURPOSE: Kinking of the iliac arteries can cause flow limitations in endurance athletes. Such kinking may be treated by surgical release of the iliac arteries. However, when the length of the iliac artery is excessive, this may not be effective. Because threshold values of excessive length of the iliac arteries are unknown, normal values for endurance athletes were obtained and abnormalities encountered in these patients are reported. METHODS: Forty-three endurance athletes (46 symptomatic legs) with flow limitations in the iliac arteries were examined using magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) with hips extended and flexed. The ratio of vessel length to straight-line distance was determined for the common and external iliac arteries. Sixteen national-level cyclists (32 reference legs) served as a control group. RESULTS: For the common iliac artery, length ratios were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the symptomatic legs than in the reference legs (symptomatic legs: 1.1 +/- 0.12, 1.22 +/- 0.19, reference legs 1.05 +/- 0.04, 1.11 +/- 0.05 with extended and flexed hips, respectively). For the external iliac artery, only in the position with hips flexed, the ratios in the symptomatic legs were significantly higher than in the reference legs (symptomatic legs: 1.11 +/- 0.09, 1.44 +/- 0.23, reference legs 1.08 +/- 0.05, 1.32 +/- 0.13 with extended and flexed hips, respectively). A small proportion of symptomatic legs had extremely high length ratios. CONCLUSION: MRA is effective for determining vessel length. The ratio of vessel length to straight-line distance with extended and flexed hips is a good measure for excessive vessel length and achieves extreme values in a small subgroup of patients. Further prospective study is warranted to define maximal vessel length ratios, which still allow benefit from surgical release of the iliac arteries.     

Preoccupation with weight and menstrual function in female elite athletes

To determine the self-reported prevalence of menstrual dysfunction in athletes and controls found to be at risk of developing eating disorders (ED) and the factors characterizing and classifying athletes suffering from menstrual dysfunction, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) and a self-developed questionnaire were administered to the total population of Norwegian female elite athletes (n=603) and age- and home community-matched controls (n=522). The response rate in both athletes and controls was 86%. Subjects younger than 16 years who had not attained menarche (29 athletes and 14 controls) and subjects taking contraceptive medication (145 athletes and 131 controls) were excluded. Thus, a total of 348 athletes (19.4±4.3 years) and 303 controls (20.6±4.4 years) were analyzed. A high prevalence of athletes (42%) reported menstrual dysfunction; the prevalence of menstrual dysfunction was significantly different between subjects classified as at risk of developing ED (54% and 36%, for athletes and controls, respectively) and subjects found not to be at risk (41% and 23%, respectively). Furthermore, the prevalence of menstrual dysfunction was significantly higher among athletes competing in sports in which leanness and/or a specific weight are considered important (endurance: 62%, aesthetics: 60% and weight-dependent: 50%) than among athletes competing in sports in which these factors are considered less important (technical: 37%, ballgames: 28% and power sports: 22%). Menarchal age, training volume, body mass index (BMI) and EDI score contributed significantly to explaining menstrual dysfunction in athletes (37%). The authors suggest that athletes reporting menstrual dysfunction could be characterized and classified into 2 main groups: first, the athletes who have a predisposed genetically lean body build (low BMI) and a delayed menarche and undertake hard physical training that does not allow them to achieve the “critical” weight for height found necessary for regular cycles. Secondly, the athletes who have normal BMI, experience menarche at the expected time and who become preoccupied with weight and dieting and/or use of pathogenic weight control methods which then, at least in part, may explain the menstrual dysfunction.     

Osteochondroses in athletes.

Osteochondroses are disorders of primary and secondary growth centres, or lesions at the apophyseal or epiphyseal growth areas of bones. Although there are many types of osteochondroses, the history, clinical symptoms and findings as well as radiological findings are typical. Physical exercise is one of the factors that provokes symptoms. In a series of 185 osteochondroses in active young athletes, there were 18 different disorders. The commonest were Osgood-Schlatter's disease, Sever's disease, osteochondritis dissecans of the femoral condyles, various other patellar osteochondroses and Scheuermann's disease. Most of the athletes were from individual events; track and field sports (53.5%), cross-country skiing (8.1%), gymnastics (3.2%) and power events (2.7%). Of the team sports soccer produced the most (20.0%). The treatment was conservative in 84.3% and operative in 15.7%. The duration of symptoms in these athletes persisted in about 43% for less than one year and in 57% for more. The late changes of osteodhondroses do not cause serious risks for a normal life, if the treatment is active and the follow-up efficient.     

Energy balance in weight stable athletes with and without menstrual disorders

The energy balance and nutritional adequacy was assessed in a group of runners with irregular menstrual function (IR, n = 10) and in a comparable group of runners with normal menstrual function (R, n = 10). Based on computerized records of 3 days food intake, the mean content of energy and macronutrients were estimated. Excess energy expenditure (EEE) during training hours was estimated using HF monitoring and individual HF/VO2 nomograms. For the rest of a daily 24 h cycle, estimated values for basal metabolic rate (BMR) and sedentary metabolic rate were applied. Daily training-related excess energy expenditure (2.1 +/- 0.3 vs 2.2 +/- 0.4) MJ (Mean +/- SEM) and total energy expenditure (TEE) (11.0 +/- 0.3 vs 11.2 +/- 0.4) MJ in R vs IR were not different in the two groups. Calculated daily energy intake (EI) was, however, significantly lower in IR (9.7 +/- 0.5 MJ) than in R (12.3 +/- 0.7 MJ), (P = 0.007). Calculated EI and TEE were in balance in R athletes. When the same calculations were applied on IR athletes, a moderate but statistically significant negative energy balance was found (-1.5 +/- 0.6 MJ, P = 0.03). The calculated energy deficit was supported by significantly lower levels of free thyroxine in IR athletes, and may indicate an adaptive lower BMR in IR athletes. Mean intakes of carbohydrates (7.0 g/kg in R and 5.7 g/kg in IR) and protein (1.71 g/kg in R and 1.49 g/kg in IR) were close to guidelines. Intakes were not significantly different in the two groups. The most important difference in macronutrient intake was found in dietary fat (1.70 g/kg in R and 1.04 g/kg in IR) that was significantly lower in the IR group than in the R group (P = 0.007). The weight stable IR and R athletes seemed to meet the recommended intake of carbohydrates, protein and fat in their diet fairly well. However, according to the present calculations, a small energy deficit was observed in IR athletes but not in R athletes. Compared with the intake of the R athletes, this energy deficit seems primarily to be related to a lower intake of dietary fat in IR athletes.     

Body weight satisfaction and weight loss attempts in fitness activity involved women

AIM: The aim of the present study was to determine the attitude of women involved in fitness physical activity (PA) towards weight loss and to find out factors that may possibly lead to weight loss behaviors. METHODS: The study sample consisted of 352 women involved in recreational PA in health and fitness clubs. Participants filled a questionnaire that was designed to assess weight related aspects of body image, dieting prior to PA, PA motivation, exercise experience, frequency and instructor's encouragement to go on diet. The relative incidence of weight loss behavior and emotional weight related state across age (<22 years, 22-31 years, >31 years), body mass index (BMI), exercise experience groups (>2 years, <2 years) was tested by use of c2 analysis. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the dependence of variables that can trigger the drive to lose weight. RESULTS: The greater dissatisfaction with the body weight was related with the younger age, while younger age did not predicted current dieting. Higher than normal BMI predicted overeating behavior. Lowest BMI (less than 18.5) was related with higher overestimation of body weight. PA experience was related with higher body shape satisfaction. Weight control related dieting prior to PA predicted negative feelings about weight gain and current weight related dieting. Obligatory body shape improvement motivation was related to more negative feelings of weight control. Sport instructor's encouragement to go on diet predicted dieting and overeating. CONCLUSIONS: The strongest predictors of weight loss behavior were obligatory motivation to improve body shape through exercising, dieting prior to PA and instructors' encouragement to go on a diet.     

Recurrent epigastric pain with weight loss and loss of appetite

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Rapid weight loss decreases serum testosterone

To investigate the effects of a rapid weight reduction program under authentic pre-competition conditions, eighteen elite wrestlers were studied with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) before and after two to three weeks' weight reduction regimens. In order to establish the degree of dehydration and hormonal status, blood samples were collected to obtain blood chemistry, electrolytes and endocrinological parameters after both DXA measurements. The mean weight loss was 8.2 +/- 2.3 % and it was constituted by the mean reductions of fat mass of 16 +/- 6.9 % (p < or = 0.001) and lean body mass of 7.9 +/- 2.5 %. The rapid weight reduction caused significant dehydration which was noticed as increased blood hemoglobin (7.8 +/- 5.9 %, p < or = 0.001), hematocrit (11.3 +/- 6.8 %, p < or = 0.001), and serum creatinine (35 +/- 23 %, p < or = 0.001). There was a significant decrease in serum testosterone (63 +/- 33 %, p < or = 0.001) and luteinizing hormone (54 +/- 47 %, p < or = 0.001) concentrations. A reduced body weight correlated with decreased serum testosterone concentration (r = 0.53, p < or = 0.024). Serum sex hormone binding globulin concentration increased significantly (40 +/- 21 %, p < or = 0.001). The results suggest that even short-term weight reduction may have marked effects on body composition, blood chemistry and hormonal parameters. It may constitute a possible health risk at least in a growing adolescent athlete.     

Avulsion fractures in athletes.

34 cases of avulsion fractures are described. Each fracture took place during athletic training or competition. Excepting six sportsmen participating in a general fitness programme, every patient was an active competitive athlete. There were six women and 28 men; their average age was 20.1 years, raised by a few middle-aged "fitness sportsmen". Most avulsion fractures took place in sprinters and hurdlers; next were middle and long distance renner, footballers, fitness joggers, skiers and ice-hockey players. The most usual location of a fracture was the anterior pelvic spines; avulsion fractures were also detected in various parts of lower limbs. There were fewer avulsion fractures in the area of the trunk and upper extremities. Roetgenologically, the diagnosis of an avulsion fracture is generally easy to make. However, the diagnosis is facilitated by knowing the mechanism of the injury, the technique of the athletic event, and some of the training methods. Generally, a fracture heals well, even if it requires both sufficient immobilisation and some delay in resuming physical exertion.