Software program to systematize data for planning public health actions

OBJECTIVE: To describe and evaluate a software program to provide basic health care teams with primary health services data. METHODS: It was described the PACOTAPS (software program for primary health care), developed using Visual Basic 5.0, and secondary data and outpatient care demand modules were tested in a basic health care unit in Pelotas, Brazil. Age/gender structure of the reference population was obtained from secondary data. Outpatient care demand allowed the characterization of all 4,170 visits carried out in a month by analyzing Outpatient Care Files. RESULTS: Age and gender distribution as well as main diagnoses and referrals were identified for all patients seen at the health care unit. In addition, there were detected differences among the health care centers due to either different organization and care models or as a result of different actual needs of improvement in patient register systems. CONCLUSIONS: PACOTAPS, a user-friendly software program, can contribute to health care unit management evaluation within the national Unified Health System (SUS). The availability of an electronic tool combining resources allows decision making in healthcare facilities, and even at municipal health policy level, to be based on more adequate and effective data.     

The demand for episodes of mental health services

Observational studies of demand for mental health services showed much greater use by those with more generous insurance, but this difference may have been due to adverse selection, rather than in response to price. This paper avoids the adverse selection problem by using data from a randomized trial, the RAND Health Insurance Experiment (HIE). Participating families were randomly assigned to insurance plans that either provided free care or were a mixture of first dollar coinsurance and free care after a cap on out-of-pocket spending was reached. We estimate that separate effects of coinsurance and the cap on the demand for episodes of outpatient mental health services. We find that outpatient mental health use is more responsive to price than is outpatient medical use, but not as responsive as most observational studies have indicated. Those with no insurance coverage would spend about one-quarter as much on mental health care as they would with free care. Coinsurance reduces the number of episodes of treatment, but has only a small effect on the duration and intensity of use within episodes. Users appear to anticipate exceeding the cap, and spend at more than the free rate after they do so.     

The demand for hospital outpatient services.

In an investigation of the role played by hospital outpatient services in medical care delivery, objectives were to identify the factors which influence the demand for these services; and to determine the relationship between outpatient service volume and the availability and price of alternative sources of care, particularly office-based physicians and hospital inpatient services. Data were from a merged national data set containing population, socioeconomic, health services, manpower supply, and cost information. Two methods were used to examine demand for hospital outpatient services. The first replicated the earlier work by Davis and Russell using more recent (1978 versus 1969) and more geographically defined (Health Service Area versus state) data. The second extended this work, using the improved availability of data to estimate demand equations, distinguishing between emergency room and other outpatient visits. The results confirmed and extended the findings of earlier efforts. The level of hospital outpatient services appears related both to the availability and the price of other sources of care, as well as to insurance coverage and other factors. These findings have implications for reform of hospital outpatient reimbursement, for cost containment under Medicaid, and in related areas.     

Determinants of expenditure variation in health care and care of the elderly among finnish municipalities

In Finland, municipal health care expenditure varies from FIM 3 800 per capita to FIM 7 800 per capita. The objective of this study was to estimate the impact of different economic, structural and demographic factors on the per capita costs of health services and care of the elderly. Using regression analysis we attempted to explain observed differences in expenditure by determining separately the effects of allocative and productive inefficiency and the effects of factors influencing the demand for services. We found income level of local population, generosity of central government matching grant, allocative efficiency (the mix of care between institutional and non-institutional care), productive efficiency of service providers, and factors associated with the need of services (age structure, morbidity) to be the most important determinants of health care expenditure. Our results reveal that municipalities have the means at their disposal (by shifting resources to outpatient care and increasing productivity) to significantly reduce expenditure on health services and care of the elderly.     

Payments for health care and its effect on catastrophe and impoverishment: experience from the transition to Universal Coverage in Thailand

Equitable health financing was embodied in the reform strategies of Thailand's health care system when the country moved towards implementing the Universal Coverage (UC) policy in 2001. This study aimed to measure the pattern of household out-of-pocket payments for health care and to examine the financial catastrophe and impoverishment due to such payments during the transitional period (pre- and post-Universal Coverage policy implementation) in Thailand. This study used the nationally representative Socioeconomic Surveys in 2000 (pre-UC), 2002, and 2004 (post-UC), which contained data from 24747, 34758 and 34843 individual households, respectively. The proportion of out-of-pocket payments for health care as a share of household living standards among Thai households shows a decreasing pattern during the observed period. Moreover, the incidence and intensity of catastrophic payments for health care decline from the pre-UC to post-UC period. The distribution of incidence and the intensity of catastrophic payments for health care across quintiles also indicate that the lower quintile group (1st and 2nd quintiles) incurs lower catastrophic health care payments compared to the higher quintile group. The UC policy is also effective in preventing impoverishment due to out-of-pocket payments for health care since both the poverty headcount and poverty gap decline from the pre-UC to post-UC period. This study provides important evidence that the UC policy implementation is a valuable social protection and safety net strategy that contributes to the prevention of financial catastrophe and impoverishment due to out-of-pocket payments for health care. In conclusion, the UC policy in Thailand achieves one of the goals of improving the health system through equitable health care financing by reducing financial catastrophe and impoverishment due to out-of-pocket payments for health care.     

Payments for health care and its effect on catastrophe and impoverishment: Experience from the transition to Universal Coverage in Thailand

Equitable health financing was embodied in the reform strategies of Thailand's health care system when the country moved towards implementing the Universal Coverage (UC) policy in 2001. This study aimed to measure the pattern of household out-of-pocket payments for health care and to examine the financial catastrophe and impoverishment due to such payments during the transitional period (pre- and post-Universal Coverage policy implementation) in Thailand. This study used the nationally representative Socioeconomic Surveys in 2000 (pre-UC), 2002, and 2004 (post-UC), which contained data from 24747, 34758 and 34843 individual households, respectively. The proportion of out-of-pocket payments for health care as a share of household living standards among Thai households shows a decreasing pattern during the observed period. Moreover, the incidence and intensity of catastrophic payments for health care decline from the pre-UC to post-UC period. The distribution of incidence and the intensity of catastrophic payments for health care across quintiles also indicate that the lower quintile group (1st and 2nd quintiles) incurs lower catastrophic health care payments compared to the higher quintile group. The UC policy is also effective in preventing impoverishment due to out-of-pocket payments for health care since both the poverty headcount and poverty gap decline from the pre-UC to post-UC period.This study provides important evidence that the UC policy implementation is a valuable social protection and safety net strategy that contributes to the prevention of financial catastrophe and impoverishment due to out-of-pocket payments for health care. In conclusion, the UC policy in Thailand achieves one of the goals of improving the health system through equitable health care financing by reducing financial catastrophe and impoverishment due to out-of-pocket payments for health care.     

The implementation cost of a safety‐net hospital program addressing social needs in Atlanta

ObjectiveTo describe the cost of integrating social needs activities into a health care program that works toward health equity by addressing socioeconomic barriers.Data Sources/Study SettingCosts for a heart failure health care program based in a safety‐net hospital were reported by program staff for the program year May 2018–April 2019. Additional data sources included hospital records, invoices, and staff survey.Study DesignWe conducted a retrospective, cross‐sectional, case study of a program that includes health education, outpatient care, financial counseling and free medication; transportation and home services for those most in need; and connections to other social services. Program costs were summarized overall and for mutually exclusive categories: health care program (fixed and variable) and social needs activities.Data CollectionProgram cost data were collected using a activity‐based, micro‐costing approach. In addition, we conducted a survey that was completed by key staff to understand time allocation.Principal FindingsProgram costs were approximately $1.33 million, and the annual per patient cost was $1455. Thirty percent of the program costs was for social needs activities: 18% for 30‐day supply of medications and addressing socioeconomic barriers to medication adherence, 18% for mobile health services (outpatient home visits), 53% for navigating services through a financial counselor and community health worker, and 12% for transportation to visits and addressing transportation barriers. Most of the program costs were for personnel: 92% of the health care program fixed, 95% of the health care program variable, and 78% of social needs activities.DiscussionHistorically, social and health care services are funded by different systems and have not been integrated. We estimate the cost of implementing social needs activities into a health care program. This work can inform implementation for hospitals attempting to address social determinants of health and social needs in their patient population.     

Incoherent policies on universal coverage of health insurance and promotion of international trade in health services in Thailand

The Thai government has implemented universal coverage of health insurance since October 2001. Universal access to antiretroviral (ARV) drugs has also been included since October 2003. These two policies have greatly increased the demand for health services and human resources for health, particularly among public health care providers. After the 1997 economic crisis, private health care providers, with the support of the government, embarked on new marketing strategies targeted at attracting foreign patients. Consequently, increasing numbers of foreign patients are visiting Thailand to seek medical care. In addition, the economic recovery since 2001 has greatly increased the demand for private health services among the Thai population. The increasing demand and much higher financial incentives from urban private providers have attracted health personnel, particularly medical doctors, from rural public health care facilities. Responding to this increasing demand and internal brain drain, in mid-2004 the Thai government approved the increased production of medical doctors by 10,678 in the following 15 years. Many additional financial incentives have also been applied. However, the immediate shortage of human resources needs to be addressed competently and urgently. Equity in health care access under this situation of competing demands from dual track policies is a challenge to policy makers and analysts. This paper summarizes the situation and trends as well as the responses by the Thai government. Both supply and demand side responses are described, and some solutions to restore equity in health care access are proposed.     

The 'quiet' crisis in mental health services

The failure of insurers and managed care organizations to reimburse providers of mental health services for the costs of care has led to a crisis in access to these services. Using the situation in Massachusetts as a case example, this paper explores the impact of this defunding. Unable to sustain continued losses, hospitals are closing psychiatric units, and outpatient services are contracting or closing altogether. The situation has been compounded by the withdrawal of many practitioners from managed care networks and cuts in public-sector mental health services. Unless purchasers demand effective coverage of mental health treatment, mental health services will likely continue to wither away.     

The demand for adult outpatient services in the Bicol region of the Philippines

The absence of demand analysis for primary health care services has hampered efforts to finance these services and to make them permanent parts of Third World medical systems. This paper introduces a demand model for adult outpatient services, describes the types of data required for estimating it, and presents the results of a preliminary estimation using data from a poor rural region of the Philippines. The results indicate that prices and distance are not nearly as important as determinants of demand in this sample as has usually been assumed by planners. There appears to be considerable room for full or partial financing of outpatient services from user fees.     

Accountable care organizations: the case for flexible partnerships between health plans and providers

Under the Affordable Care Act, the new Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation will guide a number of experimental programs in health care payment and delivery. Among the most ambitious of the reform models is the accountable care organization (ACO), which will offer providers economic rewards if they can reduce Medicare's cost growth in their communities. However, the dismal history of provider-led attempts to manage costs suggests that this program is unlikely to accomplish its objectives. What's more, if ACOs foster more market concentration among providers, they have the potential to shift costs onto private insurers. This paper proposes a more flexible payment model for providers and private insurers that would divide health care services into three categories: long-term, low-intensity primary care; unscheduled care, including unscheduled emergency services; and major clinical interventions that usually involve hospitalization or organized outpatient care. Each category of care would be paid for differently, with each containing different elements of financial risk for the providers. Health plans would then be encouraged to provide logistical and analytic support to providers in managing health costs in these categories.     

A model of interdisciplinary adolescent health care in a developing country

In Argentina, an integrated program has been developed to provide health care to adolescents in a hospital setting. In order to describe the structure and operation of the program and the constitution and dynamics of the working team, data were gathered through observations and interviews. The objectives of the program are 1) to provide adolescents with health care which integrates their physical, psychological, and social needs; 2) to detect disorders in early stages; 3) to emphasize reproductive health; 4) to strengthen families; 5) to train health care professionals; 6) to extend the program; 7) to do research on the Argentine adolescent; and 8) to collaborate with professional organizations concerned with adolescents. This report relates the evolution of the program, which has its roots in a 1973 study on the effectiveness of hospital services to adolescents, and describes the building and equipment devoted to the adolescent program. The organization of the program is discussed in terms of administration, material and financial resources, and human resources. The functions of the program are detailed and, as indicated by its goals, include health care (clinical medicine, gynecology, obstetrics, and mental health), teaching (pre/post graduate workshops, annual intensive courses, and scientific meetings), research, and community outreach. Finally, each area of medical care is described, with data tabulated for the most frequent reasons for each type of clinical and gynecological consultation. Reproductive health care includes sex education, counseling, pregnancy or postabortion care, and social services to unmarried adolescent mothers. The mental health staff offers individual, family, linking, and group therapy as well as vocational guidance, parental guidance, and psychopedagogical diagnoses. The social workers on the team interact with the adolescent in question and other professionals. In conclusion, it is noted that adolescent medicine is developing as a distinct field, and there is a need for more medical centers to provide the range of services adolescents require as well as to afford training opportunities for health care professionals. The positive results of this program based on increasing demand and user satisfaction justify the work done to create the service.     

Impact of disease management on health care utilization: evidence from the "Florida: A Healthy State (FAHS)" Medicaid Program

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of disease management on utilization of selected health care services. METHOD: Prospective observational population-based study comparing Florida Medicaid patients who elected to participate in disease management (DM, N=15,275) with a usual-care (UC, N=32,034) group who elected not to participate in the program. Patients had at least one of four chronic diseases (diabetes, asthma, congestive heart failure, and hypertension) and all received standard health care. DM participants received supplementary telephone health counseling by a managed care specialist. The data for this paper were collected between October 2001 and October 2004. RESULTS: Annual rates of inpatient hospital stays, inpatient days, emergency room (ER) visits, and outpatient (OP) visits, during and post intervention, were used as outcomes. Age, race, gender, comorbidities, severity indicators, geographic location and pre-intervention utilization were used as covariates. Compared to UC patients, DM patients had lower adjusted post intervention annualized rates of hospitalizations ranging from 0.07 to 0.38 stays, lower rates of hospital days ranging from 0.40 to 2.54 days, and lower rates of ER visits ranging from 0.10 to 0.91 visits per DM enrollee in all four chronic conditions. Most results were statistically significant at the 5% level, except for hypertension patients, where they were suggestive, though not significant. CONCLUSION: Disease management is effective in reducing potentially avoidable inpatient hospital stays and ER visits among patients with chronic illness.     

Policies and innovation in mental healthcare: limits to decoupling from the performance of the SUS

We studied Brazilian policies on mental health with respect to normative, supply and demand and financing aspects. We concluded that the sustainability of innovations in psychiatric reform depends on enhanced financing and integration with primary care community services, on the overall performance of SUS and the reduction of autonomous and exclusive services in primary care. There is high and rising pressure in demand for services measured in DALY and the incidence of disease. The reduction observed in psychiatric beds was accompanied by the systemic reduction, though with selective reduction for psychiatric hospitalizations. CAPS services have institutional limits due to the model adopted of direct public administration and local government capacity. Secondary data available show that: (i) SUS has a virtual monopoly on general outpatient and hospital services; (ii) mental health specialists belong mostly to SUS; (iii) most mental health services are outpatient services; (iv) few CAPS have day-bed services available; and (v) there is reduced federal financing for these innovations.     

Substitution of physicians and other providers in outpatient mental health care

This paper evaluates the extent to which patients may substitute physician and non-physician outpatient mental health services in response to insurance coverage which differs by provider type. Using data from the National Medical Expenditure Survey, a semi-flexible two-stage demand specification is used to estimate substitution elasticities. Our results indicate that insurance coverage significantly affects the choice of provider from whom care is sought and, for individuals who seek care from both provider types, that physician and non-physician services are substitutes. Our elasticity estimates provide a welfare economic argument supporting coverage parity of physician and non-physician mental health services. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Billing system and health care utilization: Evidence from Thailand

We examined the role of billing processes in health care utilization by exploiting a shift in provider payment from fee-for-service reimbursement towards fee-for-service direct disbursement for outpatient services in Thailand. Specifically, prior to October 2006, affected patients had to pay the full cost of outpatient treatment and subsequently received reimbursement; thereafter, these payments can be sent directly to the providers, without patients having to pay anything upfront. By using nationally representative micro-data and a difference-in-difference methodology, we show that the direct disbursement policy leads to an increase in outpatient utilization among the sick. This non-price change has long-lasting impacts and particularly increases the health care utilization of sick individuals who are living in rural areas, are less educated and earn low incomes. These findings suggest that direct disbursement helps to increase liquidity constraint individuals’ health care utilization. The results emphasize the effectiveness of behavioural interventions in health policy making.     

First German disease management program for breast cancer

The first disease management program contract for breast cancer in Germany was signed in 2002 between the Association of Regional of Physicians in North-Rhine and the statutory health insurance companies in Rhineland. At the heart of this unique breast cancer disease management program is a patient-centered network of health care professionals. The program's main objectives are: (1) to improve the quality of treatment and post-operative care for breast cancer patients, (2) to provide timely information and consultation empowering the patient to participate in decisionmaking, (3) to improve the interface between inpatient and outpatient care, and (4) to increase the number of breast-conserving surgeries.     

Use of outpatient services by the elderly in the South and Northeast of Brazil

This study evaluated the use of outpatient services by senior citizens (N = 4,003) drawing on data from the baseline study that evaluated the Project for Expansion and Consolidation of the Family Health Strategy (PROESF) in 41 cities in South and Northeast Brazil. Use of outpatient services was greater and more appropriate to the needs of the elderly in the South than in the Northeast. Primary care facilities in both regions met the demand by lower-income elderly, but those requiring more care were treated at other levels. The results highlight the need to increase the supply of outpatient services and ensure access by the elderly, particularly for individuals with functional impairments in the Northeast. In addition to promoting equity, primary care in both regions should adopt targeted approaches for the health needs of senior citizens.