Changes in mood after carbohydrate consumption among obese individuals

Two groups of obese individuals who consume excessive calories primarily as snack foods have been identified. Carbohydrate cravers consume most or all snacks as carbohydrate-rich foods despite the equal accessibility of protein-rich snacks. Noncarbohydrate cravers consume about equal amounts of protein- and carbohydrate-rich snack foods. Using standardized self-report questionnaires, we measured mood before and 2 h after consumption of a high-carbohydrate lunch (104 g CHO). Responses to the meal differed significantly: noncarbohydrate cravers reported feeling considerably less alert, more fatigued and sleepy, while carbohydrate cravers described little or no change in these aspects of mood. Moreover, noncarbohydrate cravers experienced an increase in depression, while carbohydrate cravers reported feeling less depressed. Findings suggest that snacking habits of obese individuals may be related to subsequent mood states.     

Food craving, dietary restraint and mood

A common assumption is that dieting causes food cravings, probably as a result of food energy deprivation. This issue was investigated in a two-phase study. In phase one, 206 women completed the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire and a food craving scale. A correlational analysis showed food craving to be only weakly related to dietary restraint, but highly and significantly correlated with external eating, emotional eating and susceptibility to hunger. In phase two, ten women who regularly experienced food cravings and ten who rarely craved food kept prospective records of their food intake, daily mood and food craving episodes. There were few differences in eating behaviour, although the cravers tended to consume slightly more daily energy than the non-cravers. The cravers had higher ratings of boredom and anxiety during the day, and dysphoric mood was prominent prior to the cravings themselves. Food deprivation does not appear to be a necessary condition for food cravings to occur. Rather, food cravings are closely associated with mood, in particular as an antecedent to craving and also as a consequence of craving.     

Carbohydrate craving: a double-blind, placebo-controlled test of the self-medication hypothesis

Carbohydrate craving, the overwhelming desire to consume carbohydrate-rich foods in an attempt to improve mood, remains a scientifically controversial construct. We tested whether carbohydrate preference and mood enhancement could be demonstrated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled self-administration trial. Overweight females who met strict operational criteria for carbohydrate craving participated in two 3-day discrete choice trials over a 2-week period. Participants reported their mood before and at several time points after undergoing a dysphoric mood induction and ingesting, either a carbohydrate beverage or a taste and calorie-matched protein-rich balanced nutrient beverage. Every third testing day, participants were asked to self-administer the beverage they preferred based on its previous mood effect. Results showed that, when rendered mildly dysphoric, carbohydrate cravers chose the carbohydrate beverage significantly more often than the protein-rich beverage and reported that carbohydrate produced greater mood improvement. The carbohydrate beverage was perceived as being more palatable by the carbohydrate cravers, although not by independent taste testers who performed the pre-trial taste matching. This study, performed under rigorous study conditions, supports the existence of a carbohydrate craving syndrome in which carbohydrate self-administration improves mildly dysphoric mood.     

Craving for sweet carbohydrate and fat-rich foods – possible triggers and impact on nutritional intake

Summary  This paper presents a review of the literature pertaining to the measurement and prevalence of, and triggers for, cravings for sweet carbohydrate and fat-rich foods, and considers the impact of such cravings on nutrient intake. Difficulties in defining the construct and measurement of food cravings are discussed, and recent progress highlighted in the measurement arena by the development of two psychometric instruments that appear to have good validity and reliability. With regards to triggers for cravings for sweet carbohydrate and fat-rich foods, most studies have focused on negative mood state. While it is likely that a variety of food-related cues may influence cravings ( e.g. the smell, sight, taste, and mouth-feel or texture of food, as well as thoughts of and images of food), this is an area that has received relatively little attention in the scientific literature. Similarly, there is a lack of information about the impact of cravings on nutrient intake. Preliminary data indicate that, at least for older people, cravers' nutrient intake meets or exceeds the recommended daily amounts for most nutrients. However, energy intake is higher among cravers compared with non-cravers, and a greater proportion of their energy comes from carbohydrates, especially sugars. This may have an adverse effect on subsequent weight gain. Indeed, these preliminary data found cravers to have a higher body mass index than non-cravers.     

Meal-induced changes in tryptophan:LNAA ratio: effects on craving and binge eating

This study investigated the effects of meals varying in macronutrient composition on plasma tryptophan/large neutral amino acid (tryp:LNAA) ratios and subsequent appetite and mood in women defined as "food cravers." Nine women consumed one of each of a high protein, high carbohydrate and mixed meal on three separate days. Blood samples and appetite and mood ratings were taken before and at intervals up to 150 min after meal consumption. The first subsequent ad libitum food intake was recorded in diaries. The tryp:LNAA ratio increased significantly after the carbohydrate meal compared to protein and mixed meals. No significant correlations between change in tryp:LNAA ratio and mood or macronutrient intake at the ad libitum eating episode were observed. There was a negative correlation between tryp:LNAA ratio and desire to binge eat (p=0.03) and a trend towards a negative correlation between tryp:LNAA ratio and craving for carbohydrate-rich foods (p=0.07). Participants whose ad libitum eating episode was categorized as a binge had a trend (p=0.06) toward lower plasma tryp:LNAA ratio than those who did not binge. Regression analysis showed that the effects of change in tryp:LNAA ratio on desire to binge eat was independent of meal type and changes in insulin and glucose concentrations. These findings suggest that reducing plasma tryp:LNAA ratio, via consumption of a protein-rich meal, may mediate the desire to binge eat in susceptible women.     

Gender differences in the relation between food cravings and mood in an adult community: Results from the fleurbaix laventie ville santé study.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this survey was to study food cravings and its indulgence in community adults (538 women and 506 men) and to compare nutritional parameters, weight preoccupations, and weight history between cravers and noncravers. METHOD: Cravers experienced a strong urge to eat specific foods more than once a week during the past 6 months. Food intake was estimated by a 3-day food record. RESULTS: 28% of women and 13% of men were food cravers. Cravers, especially women, were more frequently concerned about their weight than noncravers. Energy intake during snacks was higher in cravers. Less than 40% of cravers reported being hungry when they experienced cravings. Women cravers indulged their cravings as often as men. They reported more frequently negative feelings, whereas men reported more frequently positive feelings. DISCUSSION: This study shows that food craving episodes are strongly associated with mood but in a different way in women and men.     

Chocolate craving and the menstrual cycle

Spanish and American female chocolate cravers reported the usual times when they craved chocolate by answering an open-ended question. They also were asked directly if they craved chocolate perimenstrually. American women (40% open-ended, 60% direct) were more likely than were Spanish women (4% open-ended, 24% direct) to report that their chocolate cravings occurred perimenstrually when responding to both questions. The most frequently reported times (other than perimenstrually) that chocolate was craved were the same for Spanish men and women (after eating, studying) and for American men and women (evening), differing cross-culturally but not across gender. The results suggest a cultural origin rather than a physiological basis for chocolate craving.     

Chocolate cravings are susceptible to visuo-spatial interference

The study investigated the specificity of visuo-spatial working memory-based techniques as a means to reduce chocolate cravings. Twenty-four self-identified chocolate cravers and 24 non-cravers formed and maintained images of chocolate-containing foods elicited by pictures, while performing a visuo-spatial task (loading the visuo-spatial sketch pad) or an auditory task (loading the phonological loop). Vividness and craving intensity were rated for each image. Concurrent visuo-spatial processing was found to render chocolate images significantly less vivid and cravings less intense compared to concurrent verbal processing, for both cravers and non-cravers. Chocolate cravers did, however, report higher levels of chocolate craving and intake than non-cravers. It was concluded that visuo-spatial tasks provide an effective craving reduction mechanism for the management of chocolate cravings. Such techniques may be particularly useful in populations for whom eating problems are triggered by chocolate craving.     

High-calorie food-cues impair working memory performance in high and low food cravers

The experience of food craving can lead to cognitive impairments. Experimentally induced chocolate craving exhausts cognitive resources and, therefore, impacts working memory, particularly in trait chocolate cravers. In the current study, we investigated the effects of exposure to food-cues on working memory task performance in a group with frequent and intense (high cravers, n=28) and less pronounced food cravings (low cravers, n=28). Participants performed an n-back task that contained either pictures of high-calorie sweets, high-calorie savory foods, or neutral objects. Current subjective food craving was assessed before and after the task. All participants showed slower reaction times and made more omission errors in response to food-cues, particularly savory foods. There were no differences in task performance between groups. State cravings did not differ between groups before the task, but increased more in high cravers compared to low cravers during the task. Results support findings about food cravings impairing visuo-spatial working memory performance independent of trait cravings. They further show that this influence is not restricted to chocolate, but also applies to high-calorie savory foods. Limiting working memory capacity may be especially crucial in persons who are more prone to high-calorie food-cues and experience such cravings habitually.     

Food liking and craving: A cross-cultural approach.

Spanish and American participants rated how much they liked three common sweets and three common beverages listed on a questionnaire. They also named the food or drink for which they had the strongest craving. Cross-cultural comparisons in liking were almost always consistent with cross-cultural comparisons in rates of exposure. In both cultures, among subjects whose cravings could be so classified more females (about 5/8) craved sweet foods than savories and more males (about 5/8) craved savories than sweets. Among sweet cravers, chocolate craving was much more frequent for American females (44.6%) than for American males (17.4%), but no such gender difference occurred for the Spaniards (28.6 and 22.2%). The results argue for a possible physiological basis for the gender differences in sweet/savory craving but against a physiological basis for chocolate craving.     

Food cravings and food cue responding across the menstrual cycle in a non-eating disordered sample

The study aim was to examine changes in food cue-elicited cravings and the macronutrient content of craved foods across menstrual cycle phases in a non-eating disordered sample. Thirty-five college females attended laboratory sessions in the late follicular and late luteal phases. In each session they completed a measure of state food craving before and after exposure to preferred, high fat/high sugar chocolate candy. Candy consumption following cue exposure was measured during an ad libitum "taste test." Additionally, participants rated their desire to eat foods differing systematically and significantly in macronutrient content. Ovulation was confirmed with luteinizing hormone detection kits. Results show that whereas the food cue increased cravings, this effect did not differ between cycle phases examined. The macronutrient content of foods desired also did not differ significantly between cycle phases, however, a non-significant trend suggested that high fat/high complex carbohydrate and low fat/high protein foods were more strongly desired in the late luteal phase. Amount of chocolate candy eaten did not differ between cycle phases. These results suggest that cravings for high fat/high sugar foods do not differ between menstrual cycle phases examined, whereas cravings for other foods may fluctuate across cycle phases in non-eating disordered women.     

Dieting and food craving. A descriptive, quasi-prospective study

Evidence linking food restriction and food craving is equivocal. This study investigated whether dieting was associated with a greater frequency of food craving. Dieting to lose weight was distinguished from watching so as not to gain weight. Participants were 129 women (mean age=41 yrs): 52 were currently dieting to lose weight, 40 were watching their weight, and 37 were non-dieters. They completed a food craving record after every food craving, a food diary, and a daily mood assessment over 7-days. Of the 393 craving incidents recorded, dieters experienced significantly more food cravings than non-dieters, with watchers intermediate. Chocolate was the most craved food (37% of cravings) but neither the types of food, the proportion of cravings leading to eating (～70%), the situations in which cravings occurred, nor the time since the last eating episode differed between groups. Compared with non-dieters, dieters experienced stronger cravings that were more difficult to resist, and for foods they were restricting eating. Watchers showed similarities in experience both to dieters (low hunger) and non-dieters (lower craving intensity). These results support an association between dieting and food craving, the usefulness of distinguishing dieting to lose weight and watching, and suggest a need for further experimental investigation of actual food restriction on food craving experiences.     

The effect of deprivation on food cravings and eating behavior in restrained and unrestrained eaters

OBJECTIVE: The relation between being deprived of a food and intake and craving for that food was investigated in restrained and unrestrained eaters. METHOD: For 1 week, 103 female undergraduate students were assigned to be chocolate deprived, vanilla deprived, or nondeprived. Only chocolate deprivation was expected to elicit cravings, as chocolate is not easily substituted, whereas vanilla is. RESULTS: The main effect of chocolate deprivation on consumption was qualified by an interaction with restraint. Chocolate-deprived restrained eaters consumed more chocolate food than did any other group. Restrained eaters experienced more food cravings than did unrestrained eaters and were more likely to eat the craved food. Moreover, restrained eaters deprived of chocolate spent the least time doing an anagram task before a "taste-rating task" in which they expected that chocolate foods might be available. CONCLUSION: Converging measures of craving indicate that deprivation causes craving and overeating, but primarily in restrained eaters.     

Chocolate craving and hunger state: implications for the acquisition and expression of appetite and food choice

The importance of hunger state for the acquisition and expression of chocolate craving was investigated. Seventeen chocolate cravers and 12 non-cravers were supplied with chocolate and instructed to eat some twice a day for 14 days. Within each group, subjects were allocated to one of two conditions, hungry- or full-trained. Hungry-trained subjects were asked to eat the chocolate exclusively at least 2 h after last eating; full-trained subjects were asked only to eat the chocolate 15-30 min after eating a meal. A diary was kept to encourage and allow assessment of compliance. At the start and end of the 2 weeks, subjects rated their craving for and anticipated intake of chocolate prior to eating it; then, on initial tasting, pleasantness of the taste was rated. All subjects made these ratings on one day when hungry and on another when full, as defined above. For cravers and non-cravers who ate chocolate exclusively when hungry, chocolate craving increased post-training, but, at least for cravers, only when ratings were made while hungry. For full-trained subjects, chocolate craving decreased post-training, but this decrease did not depend on whether subjects were currently hungry or full. A similar pattern of results was found for anticipated intake and pleasantness of taste, except that pleasantness did not increase in hungry-trained subjects. The results are interpreted with reference to learned control of appetite and in particular to recent findings on incentive learning processes. Craving for chocolate or other foods may be an expression of a strong appetite elicited by hunger that has been acquired by repeated experience of eating the craved food when hungry.     

The effect of food intake on mood

Literature consistently demonstrates that individuals experiencing emotional distress, especially depression, report a craving and preference for sweet carbohydrate/fat rich foods. This relationship exists in individuals experiencing fall/winter seasonal affective disorder, premenstrual syndrome, and some obse individuals. The cravings and preference for these foods occur only during the fall and winter in indivuduals with seasonal affective disorder and in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle in individuals with premenstrual disorder which is the time when symptoms of depression are experienced. Additionally, unipolar depressed individuals increase their preference for sweet carbohydrate/fat rich foods as they become depressed. They also increase their consumption of carbohydrates from sucrose. Several studies indicate that sweet carbohydrate/fat rich foods are consumed because of the resulting mood enhancement. However, other studies have revealed that elimination of intake of added sucrose and/or caffeine from the diet of unipolar depressed individuals results in an amelioration of depression that is maintained as long as the substance they are sensitive to, added sucrose or caffeine, is not consumed. The cravings and preference which some depressed individuals have for sweet carbohydrate/fat rich foods seems to result from the enhancement in mood following consumption. Paradoxically, however, a better long-term strategy for mood enhancement may be to totally eliminate added sucrose and caffeine from the diet of depressed individuals.     

Experimental effects of chocolate deprivation on cravings, mood, and consumption in high and low chocolate-cravers

This study examined how deprivation of chocolate affects state-level chocolate cravings, mood, and chocolate consumption in high and low trait-level chocolate-cravers. After identifying high and low chocolate cravers (N = 58), half of the participants were instructed not to eat any chocolate for 2 weeks. This created four experimental groups: deprived high-cravers (n = 14), deprived low-cravers (n = 14), non-deprived high-cravers (n = 15), and non-deprived low-cravers (n = 15). Following 2-week deprivation, state-level food cravings, mood, and chocolate intake were measured in a laboratory setting and compared across groups. Analyses revealed that anxiety increased over time for high-cravers (both deprived and non-deprived); state-level chocolate- and food-craving increased over time for both deprived groups and non-deprived high-cravers; non-deprived high-cravers ate the most chocolate; and, high-cravers were more joyful and guilty than low-cravers after eating chocolate in the laboratory. Theoretically, these results suggest that chocolate consumption may be better explained by trait-level of chocolate craving than by deprivation and highlighted significant differences in mood, state-level cravings, and chocolate intake between cravers and non-cravers following deprivation.     

Cravings and aversions of pregnant adolescents.

Adolescents from 31 eastern Tennessee counties were interviewed during the third trimester of pregnancy (n = 97) and at 1-year postpartum (n = 64) to assess cravings and aversions, beliefs about dietary cravings, and how these factors influence dietary intake. Characteristics of cravings and aversions were assessed using a semistructured interview. Beliefs about cravings during pregnancy were measured with a 13-item Likert-type scale (alpha = 0.79). Two 24-hour recalls and 2 days' food records provided dietary data. Most adolescents (86%) reported cravings during pregnancy. They most frequently reported cravings for sweets, especially chocolate; fruits and fruit juices; fast foods; pickles; ice cream; and pizza. Many participants (66%) experienced aversions during pregnancy toward previously liked foods. The most common aversions were to meats, eggs, and pizza. Fewer cravings and aversions were noted during the first year postpartum. No significant relationship existed between craving and aversions and belief scores. Adolescents craving sweets during pregnancy consumed more sugar and energy than those who did not crave sweets. Cravings generally resulted in increased intake, and aversions led to decreased food consumption. On the basis of these results, we suggest that nutritional assessment of pregnant adolescents include questions about cravings and aversions.     

The involvement of brain serotonin in excessive carbohydrate snacking by obese carbohydrate cravers

A specific hunger for carbohydrate-rich foods has been observed in animals and human beings and appears to be regulated by the brain neurotransmitter serotonin. Consumption of a carbohydrate-rich meal increases the synthesis and release of brain serotonin (by enhancing the brain uptake of its precursor, tryptophan). As a consequence of this increased release of serotonin, carbohydrate intake is decreased at the next meal. Consumption of protein does not increase brain serotonin levels or decrease carbohydrate intake. A subgroup of obese individuals who consume carbohydrate-rich snack foods at specific times of day or evening has been identified. Such individuals do not routinely snack on protein-rich foods, and their consumption of calories and nutrients at meals is not excessive. Evidence is presented that carbohydrate snacking seems to be related to a "need" to increase the level of brain serotonin; treatment with a drug, d-1 fenfluramine, that increases serotoninergic neurotransmission significantly decreases carbohydrate snack consumption. Weight loss among the population of carbohydrate cravers might be most successful if treatment includes either a diet or drugs that increase brain serotonin activity when the need to snack on carbohydrate is most likely to occur.     

Rice and sushi cravings: a preliminary study of food craving among Japanese females

The aim of the present study was to develop a preliminary version of the Food Craving Inventory for Japanese (FCI-J) and to investigate the phenomenon of food craving among Japanese females. One hundred and eighty-five female college students completed newly developed FCI-J. Factor analysis yielded conceptual factors that were interpreted as sweets, snacks, western foods, sushi, and rice. Test-retest and internal consistency analyses indicated a good reliability for both total score and score of subscales. In addition, results showed that the FCI-J has a good content, concurrent, construct, and discriminant validity. It is noteworthy that "rice craving" may be characteristic among Asian rice consuming countries, and that there are considerable "sushi cravers" in Japan. These findings suggested that the craving for some kind of food is influenced by the tradition of food products and cultures.