Long-term impact of breast-feeding on body weight and glucose tolerance in children of diabetic mothers: role of the late neonatal period and early infancy

OBJECTIVE: Offspring of diabetic mothers (ODM) are at increased risk of developing overweight and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). Recently, we observed that early neonatal ingestion of breast milk from diabetic mothers (DBM) may dose-dependently increase the risk of overweight in childhood. Here, we investigate whether DBM intake during the late neonatal period and early infancy also influences later adipogenic and diabetogenic risk in ODM. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 112 ODM were evaluated for influence of DBM ingestion during the late neonatal period (2nd-4th neonatal week) and early infancy on relative body weight (RBW) and glucose tolerance in early childhood. RESULTS: Exclusive breast-feeding was associated with increased childhood RBW (P = 0.011). Breast-fed ODM had an increased risk of overweight (odds ratio 1.98 [95% CI 1.12-3.50]). Breast-feeding duration was also positively related to childhood RBW (P = 0.004) and 120-min blood glucose during an oral glucose tolerance test (P = 0.022). However, adjustment for the DBM volume ingested during the early neonatal period, i.e., 1st week of life, eliminated all these relations with late neonatal breast-feeding and its duration. Interestingly, no relationship was observed between maternal blood glucose in the middle of the third trimester and the outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Neither late neonatal DBM intake nor the duration of breast-feeding has an independent influence on childhood risk of overweight or IGT in ODM. Therefore, the 1st week of life appears to be the critical window for nutritional programming in ODM by ingestion of maternal "diabetic" breast milk.     

Impact of early neonatal breast-feeding on psychomotor and neuropsychological development in children of diabetic mothers

OBJECTIVE: In general, breast-feeding positively influences development of psychomotor function and cognition in children. Offspring of diabetic mothers (ODM) have delayed psychomotor and cognitive development. Recently, we observed a dose-dependent negative effect of early neonatal ingestion of breast milk from diabetic mothers (diabetic breast milk [DBM]) on the risk of overweight during early childhood. Here, we investigated the influence of early neonatal intake of DBM on neurodevelopment in ODM. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 242 ODM were evaluated for age of achieving major developmental milestones (Denver Developmental Scale) according to the volume of DBM ingested during the first week of life, using Kruskal-Wallis and Kaplan-Meier analysis. RESULTS: Children in the upper tertile of early neonatal ingestion of DBM achieved early psychomotor developmental milestones ("lifting head while prone," "following with eyes") earlier than those in lower tertiles (P = 0.002). In contrast, a delay in the onset of speaking was observed in children who had ingested larger volumes of DBM compared with those with lower DBM intake (P = 0.002). This negative impact of DBM ingestion was not confounded by birth characteristics, total milk intake, or socioeconomic/educational status. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate differential effects of early neonatal DBM ingestion on psychomotor and cognitive development. Ingesting larger compared with smaller volumes of DBM may normalize early psychomotor development in ODM but delays onset of speaking as a parameter indicative of cognitive development. This effect may result from qualitative alterations in the composition of DBM. Further studies are urgently recommended on the benefits and harms of breast-feeding in ODM.     

Secular trends in birth weight, BMI, and diabetes in the offspring of diabetic mothers

OBJECTIVE: The offspring of mothers who had diabetes during pregnancy experience increased risk later of diabetes and obesity later. We hypothesized that, in light of the historical improvements in the management of diabetes during pregnancy, these late consequences of the early environment might be diminishing with time. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Birth weight and information on BMI and glucose tolerance have been collected as part of the epidemiological survey of the Gila River Indian Community in Arizona. We examined birth weight, BMI, and diabetes in offspring of mothers with type 2 diabetes during pregnancy born in four 10-year time intervals since 1955 compared with offspring whose mothers either had not developed diabetes or were prediabetic (i.e., developed diabetes after the index pregnancy). RESULTS: Offspring of diabetic mothers (ODM) were heavier at birth, had a higher BMI at all ages throughout childhood, and had an increased incidence rate of diabetes in childhood and early adulthood (7- to 20-fold, offspring of nondiabetic mothers [ONDM]; 3- to 5-fold, offspring of prediabetic mothers [OPDM]). Relative differences in birth weight and BMI between ODM and ONDM were greatest for those born before 1965. In those born after 1965, despite secular trends to higher BMI and diabetes incidence in the ONDM, differences in BMI and birth weight of ODM versus ONDM and OPDM appeared to have been maintained. CONCLUSIONS: With the possible exception of individuals born before 1965, the increased risk of diabetes and obesity experienced by ODM does not seem to be diminishing with time.     

Breast-feeding and risk for childhood obesity: does maternal diabetes or obesity status matter?

OBJECTIVE: We sought to evaluate whether maternal diabetes or weight status attenuates a previously reported beneficial effect of breast-feeding on childhood obesity. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Growing Up Today Study (GUTS) participants were offspring of women who participated in the Nurses' Health Study II. In the present study, 15,253 girls and boys (aged 9-14 years in 1996) were included. Maternal diabetes and weight status and infant feeding were obtained by maternal self-report. We defined maternal overweight as BMI > or = 25 kg/m2. Childhood obesity, from self-reported height and weight, was based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention definitions as normal, at risk for overweight, or overweight. Maternal status categories were nondiabetes/normal weight, nondiabetes/overweight, or diabetes. Logistic regression models used generalized estimating equations to account for nonindependence between siblings. RESULTS: For all subjects combined, breast-feeding was associated with reduced overweight (compared with normal weight) in childhood. Compared with exclusive use of formula, the odds ratio (OR) for exclusive breast-feeding was 0.66 (95% CI 0.53-0.82), adjusted for age, sex, and Tanner stage. Results did not differ according to maternal status (nondiabetes/normal weight OR 0.73 [95% CI 0.49-1.09]; nondiabetes/overweight 0.75 [0.57-0.99]; and diabetes 0.62 [0.24-1.60]). Further adjustment for potential confounders attenuated results, but results remained consistent across strata of maternal status (P value for interaction was 0.50). CONCLUSIONS: Breast-feeding was inversely associated with childhood obesity regardless of maternal diabetes status or weight status. These data provide support for all mothers to breast-feed their infants to reduce the risk for childhood overweight.     

Predictors of Overweight During Childhood in Offspring of Parents With Type 1 Diabetes

OBJECTIVE

To study which perinatal factors affect the risk of childhood overweight in offspring with a first-degree relative (FDR) with type 1 diabetes and to determine whether maternal diabetes is an independent contributor to overweight risk.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Data on a child''s weight and height were collected at age 2, 5, and 8 years from 1,214 children participating in the prospective BABYDIAB study. All children had an FDR with type 1 diabetes, including 783 whose mothers had type 1 diabetes. Overweight was defined as BMI percentile ≥90. Data on birth size, breast-feeding, maternal age, and smoking during pregnancy were collected by questionnaires. Risk estimates were calculated by logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

Breastfeeding duration and birth size both contributed significantly to overweight risk at all age intervals. Full breast-feeding >4 months or any breast-feeding >6 months reduced risk of overweight (aged 8 years: odds ratio 0.3 [95% CI 0.2–0.7], P = 0.004; and 0.3 [0.1–0.6], P = 0.001). Large-for-gestational-age status increased risk of overweight (aged 8 years: 2.4 [1.4–4.3], P = 0.002). Importantly, no evidence was found for an independent contribution of maternal type 1 diabetes to childhood overweight.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that maternal type 1 diabetes is not an independent risk factor for overweight during childhood in offspring of type 1 diabetic mothers but that factors associated with maternal type 1 diabetes, such as short breast-feeding duration and high birth size, predispose children to overweight during childhood.The increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in children is a major health problem, as obesity-related medical conditions affect almost every organ system in the body (1). Gestational and perinatal factors have been shown to influence weight in childhood. Among these, maternal diabetes during pregnancy has been associated with an increased prevalence of childhood obesity (2–6). This has led to the hypothesis that in utero exposure to increased concentrations of glucose and insulin leads to increased risk of obesity and insulin resistance later in life (2). Previous studies (3–5) have been small or retrospective in design. Moreover, it is not clear whether maternal diabetes as such, or factors such as birth size and breast-feeding, which are affected by maternal diabetes, modify obesity risk.Here, we have examined weight and BMI during childhood in a cohort of 1,214 children whose mothers or fathers have type 1 diabetes and who were followed from age ≤3 months. The aim of the analysis was to determine which gestational and perinatal factors may increase the risk of childhood obesity and whether maternal diabetes is an independent contributor to obesity risk.     

Milk volume on day 4 and income predictive of lactation adequacy at 6 weeks of mothers of nonnursing preterm infants

Lactating mothers of preterm infants who are pump-dependent are at high risk for difficulty maintaining an adequate milk supply. This article reports the naturally occurring volume of milk removed from the breast by mechanical expression over time for 81 mothers of nonnursing preterm infants from 4 tertiary care centers in the Midwest. Baseline variables (infant gestation in weeks; intended length in weeks to breastfeed; number of hours post-delivery to first breast stimulation; infant weight in grams; timing of decision to provide mother's milk; income; maternal education, kangaroo care during week 1; previous breastfeeding experience; white, non-Hispanic) and day 4 variables (milk volume, frequency of pumping) were explored for predicting milk adequacy at week 6. Using the significant predictive variables of milk levels at day 4 and income, the logistic regression accurately classified 85% of the 40 mothers with inadequate milk production (<500 mL/d) and 85.5% of the 41 mothers with adequate milk production (> or = 500 mL/d). While controlling for income, the 27 mothers with lowest milk production at 4 days were 9.5 times more likely to have an inadequate milk supply at 6 weeks than the 54 mothers with higher milk production. While controlling for day 4 milk production, lower annual income mothers (< dollar 50,000) were 5 times more at risk of inadequate milk production than those with high income (> or = dollar 50,000) at week 6. This study emphasizes the importance of the amount of milk volume expressed in the early postpartum period during lactogenesis. In addition, neonatal nurses need to be cognizant that income levels may make a difference in milk production.     

Perinatal and neonatal determinants of childhood type 1 diabetes. A case-control study in Yorkshire, U.K.

OBJECTIVE: To identify environmental factors that exert their effect in the perinatal and neonatal period and influence the subsequent onset of insulin dependent (type 1) diabetes during childhood. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A population-based case-control study of data abstracted from the hospital obstetric and neonatal records of 196 children with type 1 diabetes and 325 age- and sex-matched control subjects. Analysis of matched sets by conditional logistic regression was conducted for a range of perinatal and neonatal factors. RESULTS: A significantly raised risk was observed for illnesses in the neonatal period (OR 1.61, 95% CI 1.06-2.44), the majority of which were infections and respiratory difficulties. Exclusive breast feeding as the initial feeding method was significantly protective (OR 0.65, 95% CI 0.45-0.94). There were no significant associations with high- or low-birth weight, being firstborn or small-for-dates. All factors significant (5% level) for the entire dataset, that is, maternal age, type 1 diabetes in mothers, preeclampsia, delivery by cesarean section, neonatal illnesses, and initial breast feeding were modeled and the OR remained significant for all variables other than cesarean section. CONCLUSIONS: The findings are based on medical record data that cannot be subject to biased recall of mothers. Neonatal illnesses increased and initial breast feeding decreased the risk of childhood type 1 diabetes. Further determinants of risk are mothers with type 1 diabetes, older mothers, and preeclampsia during pregnancy.     

Early infant diet and risk of IDDM in blacks and whites. A matched case-control study.

OBJECTIVE--To investigate the role of early infant feeding in the development of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and to determine whether an association exists in both blacks and whites. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS--Black and white diabetic subjects were recruited from the Allegheny County and Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh IDDM Registries. Extensive infant diet histories were obtained from the diabetic subjects and their nondiabetic siblings, who were used as nondiabetic control subjects. Each diabetic subject was matched outside his/her family to an unrelated nondiabetic control subject on birth order, birth year (+/- 2 yr), and race, which resulted in 211 case-control pairs with a mean birth year of 1967. RESULTS--In whites, diabetic subjects were less likely to have been breast-fed than control subjects (odds ratio [OR] 0.5, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.3, 0.9). Breast-feeding prevalence did not differ between black diabetic subjects and control subjects. Duration of overall and exclusive breast-feeding did not differ between diabetic and control subjects in the black and white cohorts. The following analyses, which examined whether the timing of the first breast milk substitute to which the infant was exposed differed between diabetic and control subjects, were conducted for exposure to any breast milk substitute and to breast milk substitutes that were cow's milk based. In whites, age at exposure to any breast milk substitutes and cow's milk-based substitutes were similar between diabetic and control subjects. In blacks, the first exposure to breast milk substitutes occurred significantly earlier for any substitute (5.1 vs. 11.9 wk, P = 0.02) and marginally earlier for cow's milk-based substitutes (3.9 vs. 8.5 wk, P = 0.07) in diabetic subjects compared with control subjects. The first exposure to breast milk substitutes was more likely to occur by 3 mo of age in black diabetic subjects compared with black control subjects (OR 3.3, 95% CI 1.1-10.0) after adjusting for maternal age at birth. The addition of breast-feeding status to the model only slightly weakened this association in blacks. CONCLUSIONS--The analyses of this study cohort suggest that the observed protective effect of breast-feeding on the risk of IDDM may be related to differences in the age at exposure to breast milk substitutes in blacks but not in whites.     

Infant feeding, early weight gain, and risk of type 1 diabetes. Childhood Diabetes in Finland (DiMe) Study Group

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether the increased risk of type 1 diabetes conferred by an early introduction of cow's milk supplements can be mediated by accelerated growth in formula-fed infants. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: All children < or = 14 years of age who were diagnosed with type 1 diabetes from September 1986 to April 1989 were invited to participate in the study. Birth date- and sex-matched control children were randomly selected from the Finnish Population Registry. At least three weight measurements from the first year of life were obtained for 435 full-term diabetic subjects and 386 control subjects from well-baby clinics and school health care units. RESULTS: Increase in body weight was greater in the diabetic girls than in the control girls, and the difference increased from 111 g (95% CI 0-218, P = 0.04) at 1 month of age to 286 g (95% CI 123-450, P = 0.0006) at 7 months. For boys, the difference in weight between the diabetic subjects and the control subjects remained stable during infancy (difference 95 g, 95% CI-2-205, P = 0.09). Increased weight was associated on average with a 1.5-fold risk of type 1 diabetes. Early introduction of formula feeding (< 3 vs. > or = 3 months) was also associated with an increased risk of type 1 diabetes after adjustment for the individual weight gain curve (adjusted odds ratio 1.53, 95% CI 1.1-2.2). No evidence for interaction was observed. CONCLUSIONS: These observations indicate that an early exposure to cow's milk formula-feeding and rapid growth in infancy are independent risk factors of childhood type 1 diabetes.     

游泳与抚触对新生儿健康的临床观察

目的观察游泳与抚触活动对新生儿健康的影响。方法选择2004年7月~2005年11月在我院妇产科分娩的足月正常新生儿200例,征得家属同意后,按分娩顺序分为观察组和对照组各100例,观察记录2组新生儿第3天、第7天的平均摄奶量、睡眠总时间、皮测胆红素值的变化和第4天生理体重下降、第7天体重增加的数值。结果观察组第3天、第7天平均摄奶量均比对照组多;睡眠时间也比对照组长;第3天皮测胆红素值变化不大,第7天皮测胆红素值观察组低于对照组。第4天生理性体重下降值观察组比对照组小,第7天体重增加值比对照组大。结论新生儿“游泳”与“抚触”可以增加摄奶量,延长睡眠时间,促进生理性体重下降的恢复,减轻新生儿黄疸,对新生儿的健康起着重要的促进作用。     

Physiologic Effects of Maternal Smoking on Breast-Feeding Infants

Women who smoke and breast-feed pose an unknown threat to their infants' health. In this pilot study, relationships between ingestion of nicotine in breast milk and physiologic effects in the infant were investigated. Infant physiologic effects measured were temperature, pulse, respiration, systolic blood pressure, and oxygen saturation. Five smoking and five nonsmoking mother-infant pairs were studied. Breast milk was analyzed for nicotine using gas chromatography. Breast milk from smoking mothers contained a mean of 33.1 ng/mL of nicotine while the breast milk from nonsmoking mothers contained a mean of less than 6.45 ng/mL of nicotine. Infant physiologic measures were taken before and 20 min after breast-feeding. After breast-feeding, infants of smoking mothers had a significant change in respirations and oxygen saturation while infants of nonsmoking mothers had a significant change in pulse only. Results provide a scientific basis for counseling smoking, breast-feeding mothers.     

Prenatal growth,BMI, and risk of type 2 diabetes by early midlife

OBJECTIVE: small size at birth has been associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes. Our aim was to evaluate how risk of diabetes associated with low birth weight is affected by accumulation of body mass from childhood to adulthood. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Subjects from the 1958 British birth cohort (born 3-9 March 1958) have been followed regularly since birth. In the survey at 41 years of age, 88 participants reported type 2 diabetes (n = 10683). RESULTS: Participants in whom diabetes developed weighed less at birth and had higher BMIs than the others. Birth weight (adjusted for gestational age and sex) was inversely related to risk of diabetes (odds ratio for 1-SD change 0.76, 95% CI 0.56-0.99). All diabetic participants in the lowest third of birth weight were in the highest third of weight gain by 23 years of age. An increased risk of diabetes was found for those in the lowest third of BMI at 7 years of age (2.84, 1.2-6.9), but diabetic participants in this group had excessive weight gain to 23 years of age. All but one diabetic participant in the highest third of childhood BMI remained in the highest third until 23 years of age. Risk of diabetes by BMI at 23 years of age was 22.9-fold (95% CI 12-42) for obese participants and 3.8-fold (2.1-6.9) for overweight participants compared with those of normal weight. CONCLUSIONS: There was no increase in risk of diabetes for small size at birth without excessive postnatal weight gain. Adult obesity was the most important risk factor for type 2 diabetes developing by early midlife.     

Prediction of initiation and duration of breast-feeding for neonates admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit

Women who desire to breast-feed their sick newborns often encounter obstacles, including insufficient support and education as well as unsupportive hospital practices. The purpose of this study was to describe maternal, neonatal, and outside influences associated with the intention, initiation, and duration of breast-feeding for women whose newborns were admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit. One hundred mothers were interviewed. Most mothers (67%) intended to breast-feed exclusively and this was significantly related to maternal characteristics such as age, education, parity, smoking and marital status, pre-breast-feeding experience, and the influences of the neonate's father and prenatal education. Seventy-eight mothers initiated pumping. Initiation was significantly related to maternal education, smoking, parity, previous breast-feeding experience, the neonate's physician, the neonate's father, and postpartum breast-feeding education. Fifty-four mothers were followed up by telephone after discharge until weaning. Thirty percent were exclusively breast-feeding at 2 weeks after discharge, and 15% were breast-feeding at 1 year. Duration of breast-feeding was significantly associated with education, marital status, ethnicity, income, assistance from nurses and lactation consultants, and feeding method along with milk type and milk volume at discharge. Increased family support, timely breast-feeding information, and a supportive neonatal intensive care unit environment are needed for women to succeed in breast-feeding their hospitalized newborns.     

Feeding outcomes and influences within the neonatal unit

This study examined the feeding intention of mothers (n = 100), and the factors and beliefs, and changes in those factors or beliefs that influenced their choices, in the challenging environment of the neonatal unit. Mothers' experience and the frequency of nurse-assisted feeding activities were examined in mothers intending and not intending to breast-feed on discharge. Eighty-one per cent of mothers were either partially or fully breast-feeding or intending to do so on discharge. The most important factors identified as influencing this feeding choice included personal choice, with other influences being special benefits, more natural and feeling closer to the baby. Experiences such as infants receiving their first sucking feed from either the breast or bottle (inclusive of breast milk) and mothers expressing breast milk more frequently, were found to be significantly different and increased in frequency, in mothers intending to breast-feed. Differences in the mean weighted total daily nurse-assisted feeding score confirmed that these activities varied with gestational age (< or = 32 weeks [2.57], 32 to less than 35 weeks [3.86], and > or = 35 weeks [4.91]; F = 7.04, d.f. 55, P = 0.002), although there was insufficient power to determine differences between breast-feeding and non-breast-feeding mothers. The use of the Feeding Activities Calendar may have contributed to increased activity and high levels of breast-feeding in this preterm group.     

Prevalence and Predictors of Overweight and Insulin Resistance in Offspring of Mothers With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

OBJECTIVE

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is associated with high birth weight in the offspring. This may lead to overweight and insulin resistance during childhood. The aim of the study was to assess the impact of GDM on overweight risk and insulin resistance in offspring.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

BMI measurements were collected at age 2, 8, and 11 years from 232 offspring of mothers with GDM (OGDM) and compared with those from 757 offspring of mothers with type 1 diabetes (OT1D) and 431 offspring of nondiabetic mothers (ONDM) born between 1989 and 2000. Insulin resistance (homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance [HOMA-IR]) was determined at age 8 and 11 years in 751 children (74 OGDM). Overweight was defined as BMI percentile ≥90; insulin resistance was defined by HOMA-IR.

RESULTS

Overweight prevalence was increased in OGDM compared with OT1D and to ONDM throughout childhood (age 11 years 31.1, 15.8, and 15.5%; P = 0.005). Maternal obesity was an important predictor of overweight risk in children (age 11 years odds ratio 7.0 [95% CI 1.8–27.7]; P = 0.006); birth size and maternal smoking during pregnancy were inconsistently associated with and treatment of GDM during pregnancy did not affect overweight risk. HOMA-IR was increased in OGDM compared with offspring of ONDM mothers (P = 0.01, adjusted for sex and age) and was associated with the child''s BMI (P = 0.004).

CONCLUSIONS

Overweight and insulin resistance in children is increased in OGDM compared with OT1D or ONDM. The finding that overweight risk is associated mainly with maternal obesity suggests that familial predisposition contributes to childhood growth in these offspring.The increasing prevalence of obesity in children is a major burden not only for affected individuals but also for the health economy. To develop preventive strategies, it is useful to identify subjects at high risk and factors that predict overweight risk. It is widely accepted that gestational and perinatal factors influence weight development in childhood, and several studies indicated that intrauterine exposure to maternal diabetes conveys high risk for obesity and type 2 diabetes in offspring of mothers with diabetes regardless of maternal diabetes type (1–3). Furthermore, an association between increasing hyperglycemia in pregnancy and increasing risk of childhood obesity has been reported (4). The findings have led to the hypothesis that fetal overnutrition leads to increased risk of obesity and insulin resistance later in life (5).Not all studies, however, show a direct relationship between childhood obesity and diabetes. Our own studies show that maternal type 1 diabetes is unlikely to be a primary association with obesity in offspring, but that factors such as high birth size predispose offspring of mothers with type 1 diabetes (OT1D) to overweight during childhood (6). In addition, others report that maternal pregravid BMI is the strongest predictor of childhood obesity independent of maternal glucose status or birth weight (7). The aim of our study was to determine whether maternal diabetes per se is a risk factor for childhood obesity and insulin resistance by comparing outcome in offspring of mothers with gestational diabetes mellitus (OGDM) and OT1D. Because a previous study reported age-dependent associations of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) with higher child weight status (1), a secondary objective was to examine whether associations between offspring weight and peri- or postnatal factors are consistent over time.     

Adiponectin is present in cord blood but is unrelated to birth weight

OBJECTIVE: In adults, adiponectin is reduced in association with excess adiposity, type 2 diabetes, and hyperinsulinemia. We assessed whether adiponectin was 1) present in the fetal circulation, 2) altered in the fetal circulation in the presence of maternal diabetes, and 3) had relations to fetal cord blood insulin or adiposity. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We assessed adiponectin in cord blood in a large cohort of singleton offspring of diabetic mothers (ODM; n = 134) and control mothers (n = 45). RESULTS: Adiponectin was present in cord blood and, in ODM, was higher in those delivered at later gestational ages (Spearman r = 0.18, P = 0.03). Adiponectin was slightly lower in ODM than control subjects (ODM 19.7 +/- 6.1 vs. control 21.8 +/- 5.3 micro g/ml; P = 0.04), although this difference could potentially reflect different gestational ages in the two groups (ODM 37.6 +/- 1.5 and control 40.1 +/- 1.1 weeks). In contrast to adults, adiponectin levels in the fetus were unrelated to the degree of adiposity, blood insulin, or leptin in either control subjects or ODM. CONCLUSIONS: Adiponectin is present in cord blood but does not show expected physiological relations with adiposity as observed in adults.     

The impact of prematurity and neonatal illness on the decision to breast-feed

This paper reports on a qualitative and quantitative cross-sectional study of infant feeding practices made in three neonatal intensive care units. Findings from interviews with 44 mothers of diverse ethnic origin, social class, age and gestation at delivery are reported. All the mothers interviewed had at some time provided breast milk and rates of breast-feeding on these units were higher than the national average. Eight mothers reported changing their mind about feeding methods after their baby was admitted, including three changes from formula to breast-feeding. Mothers'perceptions with regard to milk expression and their expressing history gave indications of factors underlying decisions to provide breast milk and the quality of support to do so. While mothers considered overall support to have been good, notably 35% of mothers had themselves suggested that they express milk, nearly half did not start expressing for 2 or more days, 43% expressed fewer than four times a day and 48% of mothers had received conflicting advice. There were some difficulties with both the hospital facilities and with expressing milk at home. There is a need for more consistent advice and practical help to be given to mothers.     

XENical in the prevention of diabetes in obese subjects (XENDOS) study: a randomized study of orlistat as an adjunct to lifestyle changes for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in obese patients

OBJECTIVE: It is well established that the risk of developing type 2 diabetes is closely linked to the presence and duration of overweight and obesity. A reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle changes has previously been demonstrated. We hypothesized that adding a weight-reducing agent to lifestyle changes may lead to an even greater decrease in body weight, and thus the incidence of type 2 diabetes, in obese patients. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: In a 4-year, double-blind, prospective study, we randomized 3,305 patients to lifestyle changes plus either orlistat 120 mg or placebo, three times daily. Participants had a BMI >/=30 kg/m2 and normal (79%) or impaired (21%) glucose tolerance (IGT). Primary endpoints were time to onset of type 2 diabetes and change in body weight. Analyses were by intention to treat. RESULTS: Of orlistat-treated patients, 52% completed treatment compared with 34% of placebo recipients (P < 0.0001). After 4 years' treatment, the cumulative incidence of diabetes was 9.0% with placebo and 6.2% with orlistat, corresponding to a risk reduction of 37.3% (P = 0.0032). Exploratory analyses indicated that the preventive effect was explained by the difference in subjects with IGT. Mean weight loss after 4 years was significantly greater with orlistat (5.8 vs. 3.0 kg with placebo; P < 0.001) and similar between orlistat recipients with impaired (5.7 kg) or normal glucose tolerance (NGT) (5.8 kg) at baseline. A second analysis in which the baseline weights of subjects who dropped out of the study was carried forward also demonstrated greater weight loss in the orlistat group (3.6 vs. 1.4 kg; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Compared with lifestyle changes alone, orlistat plus lifestyle changes resulted in a greater reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes over 4 years and produced greater weight loss in a clinically representative obese population. Difference in diabetes incidence was detectable only in the IGT subgroup; weight loss was similar in subjects with IGT or NGT [correction].     

The 3 M's of breast-feeding the preterm infant

Mother's own milk is considered best for preterm infants. Given the often protracted period between birth and breast-feeding for most preterm newborns, a number of challenges exist for mothers and neonatal intensive care unit nurses in establishing lactation, providing mother's own milk, and achieving breast-feeding. This article conceptualizes breast-feeding the preterm infant in the context of the neonatal intensive care unit as a 3-phase process, the 3 M's of breast-feeding: medication, mother's milk feedings, and the mechanics of breast-feeding.     

早产产妇膳食营养摄入及与母乳成分相关性

目的　调查早产产妇产后膳食情况及与母乳营养成分的相关性。方法　早产产妇在产后2周和6周、足月产妇在产后6周时分别进行24 h膳食调查,各留取其后一日的母乳样本,将膳食营养素摄入量与母乳营养成分作相关分析。结果　早产产妇产后2周膳食摄入调查表共回收30份,产后6周16份,足月产妇产后6周膳食调查表31份。早产产妇产后6周宏量营养素摄入与足月产妇比较差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）;体型正常产妇与超重肥胖产妇母乳营养成分差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。早产产妇产后蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物摄入与其母乳中蛋白质、脂肪和碳水化合物含量无显著相关（P＞0.05）。结论　在蛋白质-能量营养状况正常的早产产妇,短期内蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物摄入与其母乳成分未发现明确相关性。