The use of TL detectors in dosimetry of systemic radiation therapy

A method for determining absorbed doses to organs in systemic radiation therapy (SRT) is evaluated. The method, based on thermoluminescent (TL) dosimeters placed on the patient's skin, was validated and justified through a phantom study showing that the difference between measured (TL dosimeters in the phantom) and derived (TL method) values is within 10%. Six radioimmunotherapy (RIT) patients with widespread intraperitoneal pseudomyxoma were also studied. In dose evaluations, special emphasis was on kidneys. In addition to the TL method, the absorbed doses to kidneys were calculated using MIRD formalism and a point dose kernel technique. We conclude that in SRT the described TL method can be used to estimate the absorbed doses to those critical organs near the body surface within 50% (1 SD).     

Feasibility study of using MOSFET detectors for in vivo dosimetry during permanent low-dose-rate prostate implants

PURPOSE: To investigate the feasibility of using new micro-MOSFET detectors for QA and in vivo dosimetry of the urethra during transperineal interstitial permanent prostate implants (TIPPB). METHODS AND MATERIALS: This study involves measurements for several patients who have undergone the implant procedure with iodine-125 seeds. A new micro-MOSFET detector is used as a tool for in vivo measurement of the initial dose rate within the urethra. MOSFETs are calibrated using a single special order calibration seed. The angular response is investigated in a 100 kVp X-ray beam. RESULTS: micro-MOSFETs are found to have a calibration factor of 0.03 cGy/mV for low energy X-rays and a high isotropic response (within 2.5%). Prostate volume and shape changes during TIPPB due to edema caused by the trauma of needle insertion, making it difficult to achieve the planned implant geometry and hence the desired dose distribution. MOSFET measurements help us to evaluate the overall quality of the implant, by analyzing the maximum dose received by urethra, the prostate base coverage, the length of the prostatic urethra that is irradiated, and the apex coverage. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that ease of use, quick calibration and the instantaneous reading of accumulated dose make micro-MOSFETs feasible for in vivo dosimetry during TIPPB.     

Reference conditions for ion-chamber based HDR brachytherapy dosimetry and for the calibration of high-resolution solid detectors

The aim of this study has been to develop a two-step method of in-phantom dosimetry around a brachytherapy ¹⁹²Ir photon source. The first step is to measure the absorbed dose rate to water with a calibrated ionization chamber under reference conditions, the second to cross-calibrate, under these conditions, small solid-state detectors such as silicon diodes, synthetic diamond or scintillation detectors suited for spatially resolved dose rate measurements at other, particularly at smaller source axis distances in the water phantom. This two-step approach constitutes a method for in-phantom dosimetry in brachytherapy, analogous to the “small calibration field” commonly used in teletherapy to provide the reference conditions for the cross-calibration of high-resolution detectors.Under reference conditions, all known corrections for radiation quality, volume averaging and position of the chamber's effective point of measurement (EPOM) have to be applied. The study is therefore particularly devoted to (1) the experimental determination of the position of the source axis, (2) a general formulation for the volume averaging correction factor of small ionization chambers and (3) the experimental determination of the EPOM positions for the PinPoint chamber 31014 and the 3D-PinPoint chamber PTW 31022 (both PTW Freiburg, Germany). The distance of 30 mm from the source axis was chosen as the reference condition for cross calibrations. This concept is realized with the instrumentation available in a hospital, a scanning-type water phantom, a software package for small field dosimetry and detectors typically used in clinical routine dosimetry.The present development of a method of in-phantom dose measurement under ¹⁹²Ir brachytherapy conditions was performed in recognition of the primary role of dose calculations, e.g. according to the AAPM TG43 recommendations. But in addition, the methodology tested here is paving a practicable way for the experimental check of typical dose values under clinical conditions, should the need arise.     

不同探测器测量射波刀输出因子比较分析

目的 比较分析5种不同探测器测量射波刀输出因子,以选择适合的探测器。方法分别使用电离室探测器PTW30013、PTW31010,半导体探测器PTW 60017、60018,宝石探测器PTW60019及EBT3胶片测量射波刀12个孔径准直器的输出因子。比较分析不同探测器及探测器放置方向测量的输出因子。结果 准直器孔径>30 mm时5种探测器测量的输出因子差异<1%,准直器孔径<30 mm时不同探测器测量结果差异较大,准直器孔径越小差异越大。与胶片测量结果比较,PTW60019与胶片的一致性最好,偏差<2%。半导体探测器测量结果稍高,电离室探测器测量结果过小。探测器放置方向不同,输出因子测量结果不同。PTW60019探测器平行射野中心轴放置时,测量的输出因子比垂直射野中心轴放置的结果偏低,PTW31010探测器测量结果相反。结论 准直器孔径>30 mm时PTW31010、PTW60017、60018及PTW60019可直接用于射波刀输出因子测量,准直器孔径<30 mm时需要对上述探测器的测量结果进行修正。PTW30013不适合小野输出因子测量。     

Quality control in the conservative treatment of breast cancer: patient dosimetry using silicon detectors.

Twenty patients with early breast cancer were treated with external irradiation, delivered with two tangential beams (6 MV X-rays) using a half-beam block (HBB) and 3-D compensating filters. All patients were immobilized with individualized cellulose acetate casts. Patient dosimetry was performed using p-type silicon detectors. Midline doses were calculated by combined entrance and exit dose measurements. The mean ratio of the measured and the prescribed doses was 96.6 +/- 3.8% at the reference point, 96.8 +/- 4.3% at off-axis points on the central plane and 96.8 +/- 7.6% at off-plane points.     

准直器角度对宫颈癌 VMAT 的剂量学影响

目的：比较两种不同准直器角度对晚期宫颈癌 VMAT 计划的剂量学影响,为晚期宫颈癌 VMAT 计划的设计提供临床参考。方法：选择11例晚期宫颈癌患者,每例病人分别设计两种不同准直器角的双弧 VMAT计划,计划 A 和计划 B 的准直器角度分别为15°／345°和0°／90°。PTV 处方剂量为45Gy／（25f·1．8Gy）。所有计划都满足95％的靶区体积达到处方剂量要求。比较每个计划 PTV 的适形性指数（CI）与均匀性指数（HI）以及膀胱、直肠、股骨头和双肾的体积剂量（V30、V40、V50和 V18）和平均剂量（Dmean ）等参数。结果：两组计划靶区覆盖均能满足临床要求,但 B 计划的 CI 明显优于 A 组计划（0．75±0．03 vs 0．66±0．06;P ＜0．05）,并且有相似的均匀性指数。与 A 计划相比,B 计划在危及器官的体积剂量和平均剂量均明显低于前者（P ＜0．05）或者两者没有差别（P ＞0．05）。计划 A、B 两组膀胱和直肠的平均剂量（Dmean ）和体积剂量 V40分别为：（4500．70±218．28）cGy vs （4168．56±212．62）cGy（P ＝0．000）和（83．43％±11．73％）vs（61．46％±9．47％）（P ＝0．000）;（4836．12±313．33）cGy vs （4719．27±182．24）cGy（P＝0．121）和（97．05％±3．29％）vs （93．78％±6．60％）（P ＝0．066）。结论：对于晚期宫颈癌 VMAT 计划的设计,准直器角度为0°／90°的计划结果优于15°／345°的计划。不仅 PTV 的剂量分布有更好的适形性,而且能更好地保护危及器官。因此推荐使用0°／90°的准直器角度设计晚期宫颈癌的 VMAT 计划。     

Non-reference condition correction factor k(NR) of typical radiation detectors applied for the dosimetry of high-energy photon fields in radiotherapy

According to accepted dosimetry protocols, the "radiation quality correction factor"k(Q) accounts for the energy-dependent changes of detector responses under the conditions of clinical dosimetry for high-energy photon radiations. More precisely, a factor k(QR) is valid under reference conditions, i.e. at a point on the beam axis at depth 10 cm in a large water phantom, for 10×10 cm(2) field size, SSD 100 cm and the given radiation quality with quality index Q. Therefore, a further correction factor k(NR) has been introduced to correct for the influences of spectral quality changes when detectors are used under non-reference conditions such as other depths, field sizes and off-axis distances, while under reference conditions k(NR) is normalized to unity. In this paper, values of k(NR) are calculated for 6 and 15 MV photon beams, using published data of the energy-dependent responses of various radiation detectors to monoenergetic photon radiations, and weighting these responses with validated photon spectra of clinical high-energy photon beams from own Monte-Carlo-calculations for a wide variation of the non-reference conditions within a large water phantom. Our results confirm the observation by Scarboro et al. [26] that k(NR) can be represented by a unique function of the mean energy Em, weighted by the spectral photon fluence. Accordingly, the numerical variations of Em with depth, field size and off-axis distance have been provided. Throughout all considered conditions, the deviations of the k(NR) values from unity are at most 2% for a Farmer type ion chamber, and they remain below 15% for the thermoluminescent detectors LiF:Mg,Ti and LiF:Mg,Cu,P. For the shielded diode EDP-10, k(NR) varies from unity up to 20%, while the unshielded diode EDD-5 shows deviations up to 60% in the peripheral region. Thereby, the restricted application field of unshielded diodes has been clarified. For small field dosimetry purposes k(NR) can be converted into k(NCSF), the non-calibration condition correction factor normalized to unity for a 4×4 cm(2) calibration field. For the unshielded Si diodes needed in small-field dosimetry, the values of k(NCSF) are closer to unity than the associated k(NR) values.     

Real-time in vivo dosimetry using micro-MOSFET detectors during intraoperative electron beam radiation therapy in early-stage breast cancer.

PURPOSE: In a previous paper we reported the results of off-line in vivo measurements using radiochromic films in IOERT. In the present study, a further step was made, aiming at the improvement of the effectiveness of in vivo dosimetry, based on a real-time check of the dose. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Entrance dose was determined using micro-MOSFET detectors placed inside a thin, sterile, transparent catheter. The epoxy side of the detector was faced towards the beam to minimize the anisotropy. Each detector was plugged into a bias supply (standard sensitivity) and calibrated at 5 Gy using 6 MeV electrons produced by a conventional linac. Detectors were characterized in terms of linearity, precision and dose per pulse dependence. No energy and temperature dependence was found. The sensitivity change of detectors was about 1% per 20 Gy accumulated dose. Correction factors to convert surface to entrance dose were determined for each combination of energy and applicator. From November 2004 to May 2005, in vivo dosimetry was performed on 45 patients affected by early-stage breast cancer, who underwent IOERT to the tumour bed. IOERT was delivered using electrons (4-10 MeV) at high dose per pulse, produced by either a Novac7 or a Liac mobile linac. RESULTS: The mean ratio between measured and expected dose was 1.006+/-0.035 (1 SD), in the range 0.92-1.1. The procedure uncertainty was 3.6%. Micro-MOSFETs appeared suitable for in vivo dosimetry in IOERT, although some unfavourable aspects, like the limited lifetime and the anisotropy with no build-up, were found. Prospectively, a real-time action level (+/-6%) on dose discrepancy was defined. CONCLUSIONS: Excellent agreement between measured and expected doses was found. Real-time in vivo dosimetry appeared feasible, reliable and more effective than the method previously published.     

新型金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管探测器在放疗剂量监控中的应用

目的探索和评估自行开发研制的新型金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管(MOSFET)探测器在体实时剂量测量中的应用特性。方法分别使用医科达加速器8、15MV光子线,以及6、8、12、18 MeV电子束刻度MOSFET探测器。根据探测器灵敏度随能量变化情况评估MOSFET探测器能量依赖性。使用8MV光子线在0～50 Gy范围内观察MOSFET探测器读数随累积剂量变化的线性情况,确定MOSFET探测器剂量测量的线性区间。将MOSFET探测器固定在圆柱形PMMA体模中央,顺时针每15°检测探测器信号响应,判断MOSFET探测器方向性。对1例乳腺癌放疗患者应用MOSFET探测器进行了全程剂量监测。在使用NE-2571指形电离室对该患者放疗计划剂量计算进行物理验证后,分别于首次治疗、每周1次治疗及最后1次治疗中应用MOSFET探测器测量患者体表吸收剂量,并将测量结果与该处计划剂量进行比较,确定乳腺癌三维放疗的总体剂量偏差。结果对8、15 MV光子线和6～18MeV电子束测量结果显示,MOSFET探测器灵敏度随能量变化的幅度＜2．5%。这表明MOSFET探测器对中高能射线具有较好的能量响应。在6 V门控电压状态下,MOSFET探测器在0～50 Gy的剂量范围内保持了较好的剂量线性,最大偏差＜3．0%。在每次测量前和测量后分别刻度MOSFET探测器并取其平均值可使其剂量线性误差控制在1%以内。该MOSFET探测器信号响应在270～90°之间呈现出各向同性,读数偏差＜1．5%。但在探测器背面(135～225°之间)的信号响应明显变小,背面与正面的读数偏差最大可达10．0%。应用于患者实时剂量监测的结果显示,实际测量剂量与计划剂量相比平均偏差2．8%,最大偏差＜5．0%,符合AAPM 13号报告对体外放疗剂量总不确定度的质量控制标准。结论该MOSFEYT探测器体积小,操作简单,对中高能辐射具有较好的能量响应和剂量线性,为治疗计划剂量验证和人体吸收剂量测量提供了一种较好的剂量工具。     

面罩对不同射线治疗剂量影响的探讨

目的：测量在光子线及电子线照射下面罩对治疗剂量的影响。方法：采用PIW Marcus 23343型平行板电离室在专用的有机玻璃模体（PMMA）中测量光子线建成区别剂量的变化情况，采用Bruce等介绍的经验公式对测量结果进行修正，采用三维水箱测量电子线射野中心轴百分深度剂量，并利用平行板电离室对特定深度进行验证，结果：加上面罩后，8MV光子线建成区剂量有明显增加，近表面处相对增加约25％左右，8、12和15MeV的电子线的中心轴百分深度剂量曲线则普遍前移。结论：对于光子线主要考虑的是近表面建成区剂量的改变；对电子线则要考虑由于百分深度量前移而可能影响治疗靶区的最小剂量。三维适放射治疗中要注意治疗治疗计划系统（TPS）的计算结果是否考虑面罩对治疗剂量的影响。     

Crypt cell dosimetry for 99Tcm-sestamibi in a new small intestinal dosimetry model

The aim of the study was to calculate the absorbed dose to the crypt cells in the small intestine from (99)Tc(m)-sestamibi excreted through the intestinal tract. The absorbed dose was calculated taking into consideration the biodistribution of the radiopharmaceutical in the small intestinal wall and its contents, based on data gathered in rats. Absorbed dose calculations were performed using a new intestinal model in which S values for crypt cells are given both for the intestinal wall and for the intestinal contents as source organs. A maximum of 6% of the injected activity was found to be located in the intestinal wall at 30 minutes after injection and 13% in the intestinal contents at 2 h, resulting in an absorbed dose of 8.9 microGy/MBq to the crypt cells. Assuming the activity to be located only in the wall, we calculate an absorbed dose to the crypt cells 2.5 times higher than if all the activity is assumed to be present in the intestinal contents. Using the new intestinal dosimetry model, together with detailed biokinetic data for the radiopharmaceutical from animal studies, it is possible to calculate the absorbed dose to the crypt cells, which is not possible when using external imaging.     

Standardizing dosimetry in esophageal PDT: an argument for use of centering devices and removal of misleading units

A simple standardization of esophageal photodynamic therapy light dosimetry is proposed. Calculations of the effect on local treatment dose of using non-centered diffusing fibers have been made and the methods of calculating light energy dose to the treatment area within a centering balloon are discussed. A requirement for centering devices and standard units of Joules per cm(2) of treatment area are indicated.     

Practical electron dosimetry. A comparison of different types of ionization chambers

Since Markus chambers are no longer recommended in the 1997 DIN 6800-2 version there are uncertainties as to the use of alternative chamber types for electron dosimetry. Therefore, we performed a comparison between different types of ionization chambers. In particular, the widespread Farmer and Roos chambers were compared with the Markus chamber for polarity effect, chamber-to-chamber variation, and deviations of the measured absorbed dose relative to the value obtained with the Roos chamber (which is regarded as an ideal Bragg-Gray-chamber). The perturbation correction factor at 60Co radiation was determined experimentally as 1,029 +/- 0.5% (Roos chamber) and 1,018 +/- 0.5% (Markus chamber) for the investigated plane-parallel chambers. In addition, we could show that the Roos chambers do not have a larger chamber-to-chamber variation than the Farmer chambers. Likewise, our results suggest that Farmer chambers could be used for electron energies above 6 MeV.     

Determination of absorbed dose to water for high energy photon and electron beams--comparison of different dosimetry protocols

The determination of absorbed dose to water for high-energy photon and electron beams is performed in Germany according to the dosimetry protocol DIN 6800-2 (1997). At an international level, the main protocols used are the AAPM dosimetry protocol TG-51 (1999) and the IAEA Code of Practice TRS-398 (2000). The present paper systematically compares these three dosimetry protocols, and identifies similarities and differences. The investigations were performed using 4 and 10 MV photon beams, as well as 6, 8, 9, 10, 12 and 14 MeV electron beams. Two cylindrical and two plane-parallel type chambers were used for measurements. In general, the discrepancies among the three protocols were 1.0% for photon beams and 1.6% for electron beams. Comparative measurements in the context of measurement technical control (MTK) with TLD showed a deviation of less than 1.3% between the measurements obtained according to protocols DIN 6800-2 and MTK (exceptions: 4 MV photons with 2.9% and 6 MeV electrons with 2.4%). While only cylindrical chambers were used for photon beams, measurements of electron beams were performed using both cylindrical and plane-parallel chambers (the latter used after a cross-calibration to a cylindrical chamber, as required by the respective dosimetry protocols). Notably, unlike recommended in the corresponding protocols, we found out that cylindrical chambers can be used also for energies from 6 to 10 MeV.