Clonogenic endothelial progenitor cells are sensitive to oxidative stress

Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) circulate in the peripheral blood and reside in blood vessel walls. A hierarchy of EPCs exists where progenitors can be discriminated based on their clonogenic potential. EPCs are exposed to oxidative stress during vascular injury as residents of blood vessel walls or as circulating cells homing to sites of neovascularization. Given the links between oxidative injury, endothelial cell dysfunction, and vascular disease, we tested whether EPCs were sensitive to oxidative stress using newly developed clonogenic assays. Strikingly, in contrast to previous reports, we demonstrate that the most proliferative EPCs (high proliferative potential-endothelial colony-forming cells and low proliferative potential-endothelial colony-forming cells) had decreased clonogenic capacity after oxidant treatment. In addition, EPCs exhibited increased apoptosis and diminished tube-forming ability in vitro and in vivo in response to oxidative stress, which was directly linked to activation of a redox-dependent stress-induced kinase pathway. Thus, this study provides novel insights into the effect of oxidative stress on EPCs. Furthermore, this report outlines a framework for understanding how oxidative injury leads to vascular disease and potentially limits the efficacy of transplantation of EPCs into ischemic tissues enriched for reactive oxygen species and oxidized metabolites.     

硫化氢通过抑制氧化应激改善高糖诱导的内皮细胞衰老

目的:探讨外源性硫化氢对高糖诱导的人脐静脉内皮细胞(HUVECs)衰老的作用及机制。方法:建立高糖(33 mmol/L葡萄糖)诱导的HUVECs早熟型衰老模型,观察硫化氢对衰老的作用及其相关的分子机制。结果:HUVECs经高糖处理后,细胞生长缓慢,衰老相关β半乳糖苷酶染色(SA-β-Gal)阳性细胞数目增加,血浆纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂1(PAI-1)表达明显增高,超氧化物歧化酶1(SOD1)显著减少,丙二醛(MDA)产量明显增多,核因子κB p65(NF-κB p65)活性增加;与模型组比较,100μmol/L和200μmol/L硫氢化钠(硫化氢供体)处理组的细胞数目明显增加,SA-β-Gal染色阳性细胞数目及PAI-1蛋白表达显著下降,SOD1表达明显增加,MDA产量明显减少,NF-κB p65活性降低。结论:硫化氢能通过抑制氧化应激反应和NF-κB p65活性而抵抗高糖诱导的HUVECs衰老。     

紫草素对高糖诱导的血管内皮细胞凋亡和氧化应激的影响

目的:探讨紫草素(shikonin)对高浓度葡萄糖诱导的血管内皮细胞凋亡和氧化应激水平的影响及其可能的作用机制。方法:体外培养的大鼠胸主动脉内皮细胞随机分为5组:正常对照组(培养基中葡萄糖浓度为5.5 mmol/L)、高糖组(培养基中葡萄糖浓度为33 mmol/L)、高糖+低浓度紫草素组(培养基中葡萄糖浓度为33mmol/L,紫草素浓度为0.1μmol/L)、高糖+中浓度紫草素组(培养基中葡萄糖浓度为33 mmol/L,紫草素浓度为1μmol/L)和高糖+高浓度紫草素组(培养基中葡萄糖浓度为33 mmol/L,紫草素浓度为10μmol/L)。各组细胞经相应处理后,CCK-8法检测细胞活力,流式细胞术检测细胞的凋亡率;此外,检测细胞中丙二醛(malondialdehyde,MDA)、活性氧簇(reactive oxygen species,ROS)、超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)及谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(glutathione peroxidase,GSH-Px)的水平,以反映细胞的氧化应激状态;Western blot检测Nrf2/HO-1信号通路的活性。结果:相较于高糖组,紫草素处理可呈剂量依赖性地逆转高糖所致的内皮细胞活力降低及凋亡率增加。与正常对照组相比,高浓度葡萄糖可升高内皮细胞中MDA和ROS的含量,同时降低SOD和GSH-Px的活性;相较于高糖组,给予紫草素干预后,细胞内MDA和ROS的含量降低,SOD和GSH-Px的活性升高。此外,高糖可致内皮细胞中cleaved caspase-3、HO-1及核内Nrf2蛋白表达的增加;与高糖组相比,给予紫草素干预后细胞中cleaved caspase-3、HO-1和核内Nrf2的表达部分下降。结论:紫草素可显著改善高糖所致的血管内皮细胞凋亡,其作用机制可能与激活Nrf2/HO-1信号通路并降低细胞的氧化应激水平有关。     

Alveolar macrophages from HIV-infected subjects are resistant to Mycobacterium tuberculosis in vitro

HIV-infected individuals frequently develop Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infection. Alveolar macrophages (AM) are the initial host defense against this organism. We measured MTB growth in AM from normal and HIV-infected subjects after in vitro exposure. Intracellular growth of MTB was reduced in AM from HIV-infected subjects compared with normal macrophages. This was confined to subjects with CD4 counts greater than 200/microl. Growth of avirulent mycobacteria in HIV macrophages was significantly less than virulent MTB. Because avirulent MTB is more sensitive to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), we examined the relationship between cytokine secretion and mycobacterial growth. Higher AM spontaneous TNF-alpha secretion was associated with reduced MTB growth in normal AM. This relationship was not seen in HIV-infected subjects, suggesting that other factors contributed to mycobacteria resistance. Mycobacteria-induced TNF-alpha secretion was inversely associated with growth in normal AM but not in HIV-infected subjects. Finally, binding and internalization of MTB was augmented in HIV macrophages compared with normal, demonstrating that reduced intracellular MTB growth was not due to impaired phagocytosis. In conclusion, the increased incidence of MTB infection in HIV-infected subjects does not appear to be due to a defect in macrophage innate immunity.     

京尼平抑制高糖诱导的大鼠心肌H9c2细胞氧化应激及凋亡损伤

目的:探讨京尼平(genipin,GEN)对高糖损伤的大鼠心肌H9c2细胞的抗氧化作用和抑制细胞凋亡的机制。方法:体外培养大鼠心肌H9c2细胞,高浓度(50 mmol/L)葡萄糖处理H9c2细胞建立细胞损伤模型,分为正常糖对照组(NC组,葡萄糖浓度为5.6 mmol/L)、高糖损伤组(HG组,葡萄糖浓度为50 mmol/L)、正常糖+京尼平组(NC+GEN组)和高糖+京尼平组(HG+GEN组,京尼平浓度为10μmol/L)。CCK-8法检测细胞活力;酶标法和WST-1法分别测定细胞内丙二醛(MDA)含量和超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性;微板法检测细胞培养上清液中乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)活性;荧光探针DCF检测细胞内活性氧簇(ROS)水平;ELISA法检测核小体片段的聚集值;线粒体膜电位检测试剂盒(JC-1)检测细胞内线粒体膜电位变化;利用Western blot法检测线粒体内抗氧化酶锰超氧化物歧化酶(Mn-SOD),以及早期凋亡蛋白细胞色素C(Cyt C)、Bax和cleaved caspase-3的蛋白水平。结果:与HG组比较,HG+GEN组细胞活力显著升高(P 0.05),细胞内MDA的含量及细胞上清液中LDH的活性明显降低(P 0.05),细胞内SOD活性升高(P 0.05),细胞内线粒体膜电位明显升高(P 0.05),ROS水平降低(P 0.05),核小体片段聚集程度显著降低(P 0.05)。HG组线粒体内抗氧化酶Mn-SOD比NC组降低(P 0.05),但线粒体内凋亡蛋白Cyt C、Bax和cleaved caspase-3的蛋白水平比NC组显著升高(P 0.05),而HG+GEN组与HG组相比,Mn-SOD升高(P 0.05),Cyt C、Bax和cleaved caspase-3的蛋白水平显著降低(P 0.05)。结论:京尼平对高糖损伤的心肌H9c2细胞具有抗氧化保护作用和抑制细胞凋亡的作用。     

Virulence of Streptococcus pneumoniae: PsaA mutants are hypersensitive to oxidative stress

psaA encodes a 37-kDa pneumococcal lipoprotein which is part of an ABC Mn(II) transport complex. Streptococcus pneumoniae D39 psaA mutants have previously been shown to be significantly less virulent than wild-type D39, but the mechanism underlying the attenuation has not been resolved. In this study, we have shown that psaA and psaD mutants are highly sensitive to oxidative stress, i.e., to superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, which might explain why they are less virulent than the wild-type strain. Our investigations revealed altered expression of the key oxidative-stress response enzymes superoxide dismutase and NADH oxidase in psaA and psaD mutants, suggesting that PsaA and PsaD may play important roles in the regulation of expression of oxidative-stress response enzymes and intracellular redox homeostasis.     

Serum vaspin concentrations are decreased after exercise-induced oxidative stress

Elevated visceral adipose tissue-derived serpin (vaspin) serum concentrations are associated with impaired insulin sensitivity, but increase unexpectedly after long-term physical training. We therefore investigated the effect of an acute exercise bout and the effects of vitamin supplementation on chronic exercise effect and on serum vaspin concentrations. We measured serum vaspin and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) concentrations in 80 individuals before and after a 1-hour acute exercise bout and independently in 40 healthy young men who were randomly assigned to either antioxidant (vitamin C (1,000 mg/day) and vitamin E (400 IU/day)) or to no supplementation after a standardized 4-week physical training program as a post hoc analysis. Serum vaspin concentrations significantly decreased after acute physical exercise as well as after 4 weeks of training in individuals without antioxidants. Changes in vaspin serum concentration correlate with increased TBARS serum concentrations both in response to a 1-hour exercise bout (r = -0.42, p < 0.01) and to the 4-week training (r = -0.31, p < 0.05). Interestingly, supplementation with antioxidants rather increased circulating vaspin levels in response to 4 weeks of exercise. In conclusion, vaspin serum concentrations are decreased by exercise-induced oxidative stress, but not by exercise-associated improvement in insulin sensitivity.     

Ferret tracheal epithelial cells grown in vitro are resistant to lethal injury by activated neutrophils

Airway inflammation is often accompanied by accumulation of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) as well as epithelial sloughing. To determine whether PMN contribute to epithelial damage in inflammatory states, we examined the interaction of PMN and tracheal epithelial cells in culture. Ferret tracheal epithelial (FTE) cells were grown in primary culture on collagen-coated multiwell dishes. Confluent monolayers were loaded with [51Cr]O4 and exposed to resting and activated neutrophils. There was no significant increase in cell death as assessed by [51Cr]O4 release over 8 h of exposure, at effector (PMN)-to-target cell (epithelial cell) ratios up to 90:1, whether PMN were activated by maximal activating concentrations of phorbol myristate acetate or formylmethionylleucylphenylalanine with or without cytochalasin B. This result was confirmed by using a [3H]leucine release assay as well as by uptake of a supravital dye. However, exposure of FTE cells to activated PMN for 4 h resulted in separation of adjacent cells and formation of gaps in the monolayer, without significant detachment of epithelial cells from the dish. Gap formation was prevented by alpha 1-antitrypsin, N-methoxysuccinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Val-chloromethylketone, or 10% serum, was mimicked by PMN elastase (24 micrograms/ml), but not by hydrogen peroxide in concentrations up to 10 mM, or superoxide generated by xanthine/xanthine oxidase, and was reversible within 24 h of removal of elastase and exposure to fresh medium. We conclude that activated PMN do not kill FTE cells in culture. However, disruption of the epithelial cell monolayer probably by a proteolytic mechanism can result from exposure to activated PMN and may allow alteration of the epithelial barrier during airway inflammation.     

In vitro exposure to carbon dioxide induces oxidative stress in human peritoneal mesothelial cells

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to verify whether in vitro exposure of human peritoneal mesothelial cells to carbon dioxide (CO(2)) influences the levels of 8-isoprostaglandin F(2alpha) (8-iso-PGF(2alpha)), a marker of oxidative stress. METHODS: Mesothelial cells were exposed to either: (i). 100% CO(2) for 4 h; (ii). 100% helium (an alternative gas with which to create hypoxic conditions) for 4 h; (iii). 100% CO(2) for 24 h; or (iv). standard conditions (control). After gas exposure, mesothelial cells were returned to standard conditions and harvested immediately (T(0)), and at 1-(T(1)) and 3 (T(3)) h afterwards. Cell viability and culture medium pH were monitored throughout the experiments. 8-iso-PGF(2alpha) was assayed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Exposure to CO(2) decreased the culture medium pH whereas helium increased the pH. 8-iso-PGF(2alpha) levels in all treated groups were significantly higher than in the control group: in the 4 h CO(2) group at T(1); in the 24 h CO(2) group at T(0) and T(1); and in the 4 h helium group at T(0), T(1) and T(3). 8-iso-PGF(2alpha) levels following 4 h CO(2) exposure were significantly lower than after 24 h CO(2) exposure at T(1), and lower than following 4 h helium exposure at all time points. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to both CO(2) and helium induces oxidative stress in mesothelial cells. Hypoxia-reoxygenation may play a role in this process.     

The effects of oxidative stress on mitochondrial transmembrane potential in retinal ganglion cells

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are central neurons that undergo apoptosis after axonal injury. As the relationship between mitochondrial and oxidative signaling of apoptosis in neuronal systems is unclear, we sought to achieve a better understanding of the interplay of these two pathways by investigating the effect of direct oxidative stress on mitochondrial membrane potential in cultured RGCs, as measured with the dual-emission probe JC-1. Treatment with hydrogen peroxide caused RGC mitochondrial depolarization. Several pharmacological treatments were used to define the mechanism. Whereas cycloheximide, tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine, and cyclosporin A were unable to prevent the depolarization, bongkrekic acid significantly reduced the severity of the depolarization. This suggests that the hydrogen peroxide-induced depolarization may act through mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening independent of thiol oxidation, and may be preventable under certain conditions.     

突变SOD1导致星形胶质细胞对氧化应激的易损性

目的研究突变SOD1G93A星形胶质细胞是否表现了对氧化应激的易损性。方法原代突变SOD1星形胶质细胞和野生型SOD1星形胶质细胞体外培养。实验细胞分为突变型组和野生型组;突变组和野生型组又分为对照组、血清剥夺组和EGCG干预组;使用5和10μmol/L EGCG分别干预;用MTT检测细胞的增殖能力;激光共聚焦检测ROS;用Western blot检测细胞中Nrf2及其介导的HO1和NQO1的表达。结果与正常星形胶质细胞相比,含有突变SOD1星形胶质细胞MTT显著下降(P<0.01)。细胞中Nrf2表达下降了44%(P<0.01)。Nrf2介导的HO1和NQO1的表达水平也分别下降了43%(P<0.01)和40%(P<0.05)。5和10μmol/L EGCG使NQO1的表达水平分别升高了1.5和2.5倍(P<0.05),也升高了Nrf2的表达并促进了Nrf2向细胞核中转移。结论突变SOD1造成了星形胶质细胞对氧化应激的易受损性。     

Methylglyoxal induces apoptosis mediated by reactive oxygen species in bovine retinal pericytes

One of the histopathologic hallmarks of early diabetic retinopathy is the loss of pericytes. Evidences suggest that the pericyte loss in vivo is mediated by apoptosis. However, the underlying cause of pericyte apoptosis is not fully understood. This study investigated the influence of methylglyoxal (MGO), a reactive alpha-dicarbonyl compound of glucose metabolism, on apoptotic cell death in bovine retinal pericytes. Analysis of internucleosomal DNA fragmentation by ELISA showed that MGO (200 to 800 microM) induced apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner. Intracellular reactive oxygen species were generated earlier and the antioxidant, N-acetyl cysteine, inhibited the MGO-induced apoptosis. NF-kappaB activation and increased caspase-3 activity were detected. Apoptosis was also inhibited by the caspase-3 inhibitor, Z-DEVD-fmk, or the NF-kappaB inhibitor, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate. These data suggest that elevated MGO levels observed in diabetes may cause apoptosis in bovine retinal pericytes through an oxidative stress mechanism and suggests that the nuclear activation of NF-kappaB are involved in the apoptotic process.     

Vitamin E protects chondrocytes against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in vitro

Objective and design

This study evaluated the effect of an antioxidant, Vitamin E, on cultured chondrocytes against H₂O₂-induced damage in vitro.

Material

Rat chondrocytes isolated from articular cartilage.

Treatment

Chondrocytes were pretreated with either 50 or 100 μM Vitamin E or serum-free medium for 24 h followed by their exposure to 200 μM H₂O₂ for 3 h. Chondrocytes without exposure to H₂O₂ served as control group.

Methods

The effect of Vitamin E pretreatment was evaluated by examining proteoglycan contents, nitrite levels, viability, apoptosis, and senescence of cultured chondrocytes.

Results

Proteoglycan contents increased in groups treated with Vitamin E. Semi-quantitative real-time PCR data also correlated with these results and demonstrated that Vitamin E up-regulated expression of Agc1, Col2a1, and PCNA genes along with down-regulation in the expression of Col1a1 and Casp3 genes. The differentiation index improved after Vitamin E pretreatment. Nitrite levels were reduced with a corresponding increase in cell viability. Reduction in apoptosis and senescence was also observed after Vitamin E pretreatment. Moreover, a dose-dependent effect of Vitamin E was seen. In contrast to 50 μM Vitamin E, 100 μM was more potent in inducing protection of chondrocytes from H₂O₂-induced oxidative damage.

Conclusion

Vitamin E reversed the oxidant-induced alterations in chondrocytes and may be a good option to pretreat chondrocytes before transplantation.     

Synthetic liver X receptor agonist T0901317 attenuates high glucose-induced oxidative stress,mitochondrial damage and apoptosis in cardiomyocytes

The aim of the present study was to investigate the protective effects of T0901317 (T0), a potent agonist of liver X receptors (LXRs), on high glucose-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in H9c2 cardiac cells. Exposure of H9c2 cells to high glucose alone, not only caused a significant increase in apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, but also led to a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), release of cytochrome c, decrease in Bcl-2, increase in Bax expression and the activation of caspase-3, caspase-9, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and nuclear factor (NF)-κB. However, pretreatment with T0 effectively decreased apoptosis, reduced the levels of ROS, abrogated ΔΨm, inhibited cytochrome c release and NF-κB activation, increased Bcl-2 and decreased Bax expression. In conclusion, our data suggest that T0 exerts protective effects against high glucose-induced apoptosis in H9C2 cardiac muscle cells via inhibition of ROS production, mitochondrial death and NF-κB activation.     

Superoxide dismutase-deficient mutants of Helicobacter pylori are hypersensitive to oxidative stress and defective in host colonization

Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is a nearly ubiquitous enzyme among organisms that are exposed to oxic environments. The single SOD of Helicobacter pylori, encoded by the sodB gene, has been suspected to be a virulence factor for this pathogenic microaerophile, but mutations in this gene have not been reported previously. We have isolated mutants with interruptions in the sodB gene and have characterized them with respect to their response to oxidative stress and ability to colonize the mouse stomach. The sodB mutants are devoid of SOD activity, based on activity staining in nondenaturing gels and quantitative assays of cell extracts. Though wild-type H. pylori is microaerophilic, the mutants are even more sensitive to O(2) for both growth and viability. While the wild-type strain is routinely grown at 12% O(2), growth of the mutant strains is severely inhibited at above 5 to 6% O(2). The effect of O(2) on viability was determined by subjecting nongrowing cells to atmospheric levels of O(2) and plating for survivors at 2-h time intervals. Wild-type cell viability dropped by about 1 order of magnitude after 6 h, while viability of the sodB mutant decreased by more than 6 orders of magnitude at the same time point. The mutants are also more sensitive to H(2)O(2), and this sensitivity is exacerbated by increased O(2) concentrations. Since oxidative stress has been correlated with DNA damage, the frequency of spontaneous mutation to rifampin resistance was studied. The frequency of mutagenesis of an sodB mutant strain is about 15-fold greater than that of the wild-type strain. In the mouse colonization model, only 1 out of 23 mice inoculated with an SOD-deficient mutant of a mouse-adapted strain became H. pylori positive, while 15 out of 17 mice inoculated with the wild-type strain were shown to harbor the organism. Therefore, SOD is a virulence factor which affects the ability of this organism to colonize the mouse stomach and is important for the growth and survival of H. pylori under conditions of oxidative stress.     

Alpinia protocatechuic acid protects against oxidative damage in vitro and reduces oxidative stress in vivo

In this study, the neuroprotective effects of Alpinia protocatechuic acid (PCA), a phenolic compound isolated from the dried fruits of Alpinia Oxyphylla Miq. was found. The protective effect of Alpinia PCA against H₂O₂-induced oxidative damage on PC12 cells was investigated by measuring cell viability via 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays. Rats were injected intraperitoneally with Alpinia PCA at a dose of 5 mg/kg per day for 7 days, behavioral testing was performed in Y-maze. In order to make clear the neuroprotective mechanism of Alpinia PCA, the activities of endogenous antioxidants and the content of lipid peroxide in brain were assayed. The results proved that Alpinia PCA significantly prevented the H₂O₂-induced reduction in cell survival, improved the cognition of aged rats, reduced the content of lipid peroxide, increased the activity of glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase. All these suggested that Alpinia PCA was a potential neuroprotective agent and its neuroprotective effects were achieved at least partly by promoting endogenous antioxidant enzymatic activities and inhibiting free radical generation.     

Glutathione depletion causes an uncoupling effect on retinal horizontal cells through oxidative stress

To investigate a physiological role of glutathione in the horizontal cells of carp retina, the gap junctional intercellular communication between horizontal cells was studied using the techniques of intracellular recording of light-induced responses and coupling of the fluorescence dye Lucifer Yellow. Intravitreal injection of 2.5 μmol -buthionine sulfoximine, an inhibitor of glutathione synthesis, induced a dramatic reduction (20% of control) of retinal glutathione level two days after treatment. The low level of glutathione continued for a further four to five days, and thereafter gradually recovered to about 40% (20 days after injection) and 70% (50 days after injection) of the control level. The spatial properties of the photopic L-type horizontal cell response were examined by enlarging the diameter of the central spot and peripheral annulus over the recording point. In normal retinas, the response amplitude of horizontal cells was monotonically enhanced as the diameter of the spot increased (0.5–4.0 mm) and correspondingly the dye diffusion area was wide, as the injected Lucifer Yellow normally diffused to several neighboring cells. Treatment with -buthionine sulfoximine significantly altered the spatial properties of horizontal cells by increasing the response amplitude to central spots and slightly decreasing that to peripheral annuli, which were observed by four days after injection. It also restricted intracellular Lucifer Yellow to one or two cells. Accompanying the recovery of the cellular level of glutathione, the spatial properties and dye coupling of horizontal cells were restored to normal.

A time lag (two days) of initiation in retinal glutathione depletion and alteration of spatial or dye coupling properties of horizontal cells is discussed, together with reactive oxygen species accumulation.     

NOD mice are resistant to depletion of thymic cells caused by acute stress or infection.

NOD mice spontaneously develop autoimmune diabetes; disease onset in females of our colony of NOD mice usually takes place around the 4th month of age. Diabetes of NOD mice can be modulated by different stress protocols, even though these animals were shown to be resistant to the effects of glucocorticoids on their lymphocytes. We have recently found that the early host inflammatory response to mycobacteria can be strongly modified by stress, the autoimmunity-prone NOD and NZB/W mice being particularly affected. These mice show reduced numbers of granulocytes in the inflammatory cavity after exposure to stress. Mycobacterium avium is an opportunistic agent that is responsible for disseminated infections seen in AIDS patients. Here, we investigated whether the early immune response to M. avium was altered by stress in NOD mice and we compared the stress response of these mice with a non-autoimmune strain, BALB/c mice. The effects of stress on infected BALB/c mice, which like AIDS patients are susceptible to M. avium infection, offers experimental evidence that M. avium infection, if coupled with stress of the host, may accelerate loss of T helper cells. In contrast, in NOD mice, stress or infection significantly increased the number of cells of the thymuses of the animals. Data obtained with NOD mice support the previously reported resistance of NOD mice lymphocytes to glucocorticoids and suggest that there are two distinct signalling pathways involved in the response of NOD lymphocytes to these stress hormones: one leading to apoptosis and the other mediating glucocorticoid inhibition of activation-induced cell death.