A longitudinal examination of alcohol,marijuana, and cigarette perceived norms among middle school adolescents

Background

Adolescents tend to overestimate the prevalence of substance use among their peers and these perceived norms are associated with their current and future use. However, little is known about how perceived norms change over time during middle school, a developmental period when adolescents are at-risk for initiating substance use.

Method

We examined changes in perceived norms of alcohol, marijuana, and cigarettes over a two-year period among a large and diverse sample of 6th and 7th grade youth (N = 6097; 50.1% female; 54% Hispanic). Participants completed a baseline survey and two subsequent annual surveys. Participants estimated the percentage of their peers they believed used each substance, as well as indicated levels of personal use, offers to use from peers, and exposure to peers who were using each substance.

Results

Perceived norms of all three substances increased over time. Increases were somewhat attenuated when controlling for demographic factors, personal use, and peer factors, but remained significant. Female adolescents and those reporting non-Hispanic White ethnicity experienced the greatest increase in perceived norms over time.

Conclusion

Normative perceptions of substance use increase greatly during the middle school years, an effect which cannot be fully explained by demographics, personal use, or peer factors. Given that perceived norms are often associated with personal use, early interventions with middle school youth are warranted to prevent the growth of these influential factors during this developmental period.     

Daily patterns of alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use in adolescent smokers and nonsmokers

Timeline followback (TLFB) methodology was used to assess the daily use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana in adolescent cigarette smokers and nonsmokers over the prior 30 days. Adolescent smokers reported more frequent daily use of both alcohol and marijuana than nonsmokers did. Of those smokers and nonsmokers who drank alcohol and used marijuana, smokers reported more frequent daily use of alcohol, but not marijuana. In examining daily use patterns, there were very few instances when adolescent smokers used alcohol but did not smoke cigarettes, and smokers used marijuana alone on more days than alcohol alone. One-fifth of the adolescent smokers used all three substances on the same day in the past month. There were no significant differences in the patterns of alcohol and marijuana use between female and male smokers, regardless of age. Implications for clinical interventions and future research are discussed.     

Patterns of adolescent alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use over a 6-month period.

In the current study, alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use among adolescents (N= 794, 48.6% female) was assessed at two time points, and four patterns of use were identified: (1) abstainers: no lifetime use; (2) new users: no use at baseline but had used by the follow-up period; (3) experimenters: use prior to the baseline but no use in the period up to the follow-up; and (4) consistent users: self-report of use prior to the baseline and the follow-up. Mean levels of psychosocial variables (mastery, self-esteem, and parental social support) were compared across the four patterns of use for each substance. Only analyses including parental social support as the dependent variable were significant. Adolescents with higher levels of social support were more likely to be classified as abstainers or experimenters of alcohol than consistent users. More frequent users of cigarettes at baseline were likely to be classified as frequent users at the follow-up. The discussion focuses on the identification of the situational context of substance use for alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana.     

Trends in adolescent alcohol and other substance use: relationships to trends in peer, parent, and school influences.

The aim of this study is to improve understanding of trends in adolescent substance use by comparing them with trends in peer substance use, school problem behavior, parental disapproval of alcohol and drugs, and exposure to school prevention information. These trends were determined using data from three large comparable representative surveys of 7-12th grade students in New York State conducted in 1983, 1990, and 1994. Analysis of variance was used to test the significance of the trends and to identify meaningful differences in trends by demographic subgroups (gender, grace level, and ethnicity). Adolescent alcohol and substance use declined in the 1980s, then increased from 1990 to 1994. Trends in friend's substance use and school problem behavior paralleled the alcohol and other substance use trends, consistent with their being part of the same adolescent problem behavior syndrome. Parental disapproval also followed a trend consistent with the substance use trends, i.e., parental disapproval increased in the 1980s but then decreased in the 1990s. However, the trend in school prevention influences did not parallel these substance use trends: student exposure to school primary prevention programs continued to increase from 1990 to 1994. Use of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, and other illicit drugs from 1990 to 1994, increased fastest among the younger students, despite increased school prevention exposure. Other factors must be sought as possible explanations of the increasing alcohol and substance use among adolescents.     

Family, religious, school and peer influences on adolescent alcohol use: a longitudinal study

OBJECTIVE: In this study, the cross-temporal relationship between family social support and adolescent alcohol use was examined. A primary aim was to investigate the mechanisms through which family social support affects drinking among youth. Another aim was to examine reciprocal relationships among the study variables. METHOD: Four-wave (with 6-month intervals) panel survey data collected from 840 middle adolescent boys (n = 443) and girls (n = 397) attending a suburban school district in western New York were analyzed using structural equation modeling with maximum likelihood estimation. RESULTS: Analyses revealed that family social support was indirectly associated with decreased alcohol consumption among the respondents, primarily through variables measuring religiosity, school grades and peer alcohol use. In addition, adolescent alcohol use was directly associated with subsequent increases in peer alcohol use and later decreases in school performance. Results also showed that receiving good grades in school predicted moderate increases in family social support. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study are discussed in terms of the interrelationships that exist among multiple socializing influences and alcohol use among adolescents.     

Perceived parental reactions and peer respect as predictors of adolescent cigarette smoking and alcohol use

Cigarette smoking and alcohol use contribute substantially to the global burden of morbidity and premature mortality. Most use begins during adolescence, often with experimentation taking place between 11 and 15 years of age. This study examined the importance of perceived parental reactions to, and peer respect for, cigarette smoking and alcohol use. Particular attention was given to the relative importance of these variables compared with the more widely examined influences of perceived parental and peer support. Our final models explained 44% of the variance in cigarette smoking and 46% in alcohol use. Most of the explained variance in both cigarette smoking and alcohol use was accounted for by only three variables: peer use, perceived parental reaction to use, and perceived respect from peers if using. Our findings indicate that perceived parental reaction to use and peer respect for use may be important contributors to adolescent cigarette smoking and alcohol use.     

A panel study of normative structure, adolescent alcohol use and peer alcohol use

Panel data and multiple regression of follow-up data on baseline data are used to explore direction of relationship among normative structure, adolescent alcohol use and peer alcohol use. Baseline and follow-up data were collected on a random sample of 100 adolescents (54 males). Two separate measures of each of the six variables--Adolescent Alcohol Involvement Scale (AAIS), Quantity-Frequency Index (QF), close friend drinking level, other friend drinking level, perceived harm due to alcohol use and attitudes toward alcohol--were used. The relationship between adolescent self-drinking and peer alcohol use was found to be reciprocal, complex and limited to close friends. Baseline AAIS predicted follow-up close friend drinking level, but baseline QF Index did not. Baseline close friend drinking level predicted follow-up QF Index but not follow-up AAIS. Normative structure toward alcohol was found to be stable over time and unrelated to baseline self or peer alcohol use. Baseline perceived harm due to alcohol use predicted follow-up QF Index, indicating that adolescents adjust behavior to prior attitudes.     

The influence of attitudes, acculturation, and gender on substance use for Mexican American middle school students

The present study tested if current drug use was related to acculturation (measured by language spoken at home), gender, or youth attitudes towards drugs in a large sample of 8th grade, predominantly Mexican American, Hispanic youth. The data were obtained via self-report survey from 2964 Hispanic youth in 108 schools. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to test if acculturation, gender, or youth attitudes towards drugs predicted past 30-day use of alcohol, inhalant, or marijuana use and assess school-level influences. Acculturation and gender interacted with attitudes towards drugs to predict current alcohol use. Gender interacted with attitudes towards drugs to predict current alcohol and inhalant use. Having positive attitudes towards drugs was related to increased substance use for all three drug types. Hispanic eighth grade girls had significantly higher use rates than boys for both alcohol and inhalants. Additional research is needed to better understand the influence of acculturation on substance use among Hispanic youth.     

Family, school, peer and individual influences on early adolescent alcohol use: first-year impact of the Resilient Families programme

Introduction and Aims. This study aimed to examine: (a) the influence of family factors relative to school, peer and individual influences on the development of adolescent alcohol use during the first year of secondary school; and (b) the feasibility of preventing adolescent alcohol use by modifying family factors. Design and Methods. Twenty-four schools in Melbourne, Australia were randomly assigned to either the 'Resilient Families' intervention or a control condition. A baseline cohort of 2315 grade 7 students (mean age 12.3 years) were followed-up one year later (n = 2128 for longitudinal analyses). A sub-set of parents (n = 1166) also returned baseline surveys. Results. The prevalence of lifetime alcohol use in year 7 was 33% and rose to 47% by year 8. Student-reported predictors of year 8 alcohol use included baseline alcohol [Odds Ratio (OR) 3.64] and tobacco use (2.68), and school friend's alcohol (1.41) and tobacco use (1.64). After adjusting for other influences, student-reported family factors were not maintained as significant predictors of year 8 alcohol use. Parent-report predictors of student-reported alcohol use included allowing alcohol use in the home (2.55), parental alcohol use (1.88) and child hyperactivity (1.85). Protective factors included attendance at brief parent education (0.60) and parent involvement in school education (0.65). Discussion and Conclusions. The intervention appeared to benefit education-related outcomes, but no overall effect in reducing student alcohol use was found in year 8. Intervention effects on alcohol misuse may become significant in later secondary school once the entire program has been implemented. Considerable alcohol use was detected in early secondary school, suggesting that interventions to reduce alcohol use may be usefully implemented prior to this period. [Shortt AL, Hutchinson DM, Chapman R, Toumbourou JW. Family, school, peer and individual influences on early adolescent alcohol use: first-year impact of the Resilient Families programme. Drug Alcohol Rev 2007;26:625 - 634]     

High-intensity and simultaneous alcohol and marijuana use among high school seniors in the United States

Background: Simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use poses threats to health, particularly among adolescents. These risks would be exacerbated to the extent that high-intensity drinking (e.g., 10+ drinks in a row) and marijuana use (e.g., 1+ joints per day) are associated with a higher likelihood of SAM use. The current study examines the extent to which the intensity of alcohol use and of marijuana use are associated with adolescent SAM use prevalence, and whether associations remain after controlling for key covariates known to associate with both alcohol and marijuana use; it identifies alcohol and marijuana use intensity levels associated with the highest risk of adolescent SAM use. Methods: Data come from nationally representative samples of US 12th graders who participated in the Monitoring the Future study from 2005 to 2014 (N = 24,203 respondents; 48.4% boys, 51.6% girls). Results: SAM use during the past year was reported by 20% of 12th graders overall. SAM use prevalence was strongly and positively associated with alcohol and marijuana use intensity even after controlling for covariates. High school seniors at highest risk for engaging in SAM use were those who reported 10+ drinks and those smoking at least 1 joint/day. Approximately 60% of those who had 10–14 or 15+ drinks in a row during the past 2 weeks and 76%–80% of those who had 1 or 2+ joints per day on average during the past 30 days reported SAM use. Conclusions: Results suggest that high school seniors who consume high quantities of alcohol and marijuana are very likely to consume these substances so that their effects overlap.     

Sensation-seeking as a moderator of the effects of peer influences,consistency with personal aspirations,and perceived harm on marijuana and cigarette use among younger adolescents

Concurrent effects of peer influence and protective cognitive variables on marijuana and cigarette use are hypothesized to be contingent on adolescent sensation-seeking. The hypothesis was tested in 1999-2000 using a survey given to eighth graders (N=3127) in 20 U.S. middle schools. Results largely supported the hypothesis that peer pressure and perceived peer marijuana use had only a relatively trivial effect on low sensation-seekers and a much greater effect on high sensation-seekers. In addition, aspirations inconsistent with marijuana use appeared protective for high sensation-seekers.     

Over time relationships between early adolescent and peer substance use

Peer and adolescent substance use are highly correlated, but this relationship is not fully understood. In particular, the relative contributions of selection and socialization to substance use progression have not been established. Students (n=2453) in the seven middle schools in one school district were assessed at school at the beginning and end of the sixth, seventh, eighth grade and beginning of the 9th grade. Self-reported smoking and drinking and the number of substance using friends were assessed 5 times over 3 years. The relationship between peer and adolescent substance use were assessed in parallel processes as part of an autoregressive latent trajectory model. Substance use and the number of substance using friends increased in linear fashion from T1 to T5. Initial substance use predicted an increase in the number of substance using friends over time, indicating an effect of selection, and the initial number of substance using friends predicted substance use progression, providing evidence of socialization. The magnitudes of these relationships were similar. Bivariate, lagged autoregressive analyses of the successive relationships from one assessment to the next showed consistent, significant associations from peer use to adolescent substance use. The association from adolescent to peer use was significant only from 7th to 8th grade. The findings provide evidence of reciprocal influences, but socialization was a more consistent influence than selection.     

Moderators of the association between peer and target adolescent substance use

Associating with substance using peers is generally considered as one of the most important predictors of adolescent substance use. However, peer association does not affect all adolescents in the same way. To better understand when and under what conditions peer association is most linked with adolescent substance use (SU), this review focuses on the factors that may operate as moderators of this association. The review highlighted several potential moderators reflecting adolescents' individual characteristics (e.g., pubertal status, genes and personality), peer and parental factors (e.g., nature of relationships and parental monitoring), and contextual factors (e.g., peer, school and neighborhood context). As peer association is a broad concept, important methodological aspects were also addressed in order to illustrate how they can potentially bias interpretation. Taking these into account, we suggest that, while the effects of some moderators are clear (e.g., parental monitoring and sensation seeking), others are less straightforward (e.g., neighborhood) and need to be further examined. This review also provides recommendations for addressing different methodological concerns in the study of moderators, including: the use of longitudinal and experimental studies and the use of mediated moderation. These will be key for developing theory and effective prevention.     

A two-stage model of peer influence in adolescent substance use: individual and relationship-specific differences in susceptibility to influence

A two-stage model of peer influence was proposed. The model served as a framework for examining individual and relationship-specific differences in susceptibility to influence. The two stages are (1) the acquisition of a peer context and (2) conforming to the behavior of a peer. Data from a four-wave longitudinal study were used to assess (1) the initial selection of cigarette- and alcohol-using peers and (2) influence from peers. Relationship factors and variables identified as risk factors for substance use were hypothesized to increase susceptibility to peer influence. The results indicated that adolescents who did not value school achievement or spending time with parents were more apt than others to choose friends who smoked cigarettes more than they did. Adolescents who chose friends who drank more than they did not differ from other adolescents on any of the risk factors. Thus, low-risk adolescents were as likely to acquire a friend context where drinking was likely to occur as were adolescents who had more risk factors. When the second stage was examined, only high peer acceptance and high friendship quality resulted in adolescents being more apt to conform to their friend's substance-use behaviors.     

The influence of high school dropout on substance use among African American youth

The role of high school dropout in the onset and rapid escalation of substance use was investigated with 1,762 African American youth participating in the 1990 and 1992 follow-ups of the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88). In 1990, all youth were students; most were in the 10th grade and approximately 16 years old. Path analysis models were used to examine dropout's unique contribution to substance use and its mediational effect on the association of prior problem behavior with later substance use. Compared with students, dropout youth were 1.6 times more likely to smoke cigarettes and 1.3 times more likely to smoke marijuana. Partial mediational effects emerged for problem behavior and use of cigarettes and marijuana.     

Childhood predictors of adolescent marijuana use: early sensation-seeking, deviant peer affiliation, and social images

This study examined psychosocial mechanisms by which children's early sensation-seeking may influence their later marijuana use. In a longitudinal study, 4th and 5th grade elementary school children (N=420) were followed until they were in 11th and 12th grades in high school with annual or biennial assessments. Sensation-seeking (assessed over the first 4 assessments) predicted affiliating with deviant peers and level of favorable social images of kids who use marijuana (both assessed over the subsequent 3 assessments). Affiliation with deviant peers and the growth in social images predicted marijuana use in 11th and 12th grades. Affiliation with deviant peers mediated the effect of early sensation-seeking on subsequent marijuana use. The theoretical and applied significance of this influence of early sensation-seeking is discussed.     

Vulnerability to peer influence: a moderated mediation study of early adolescent alcohol use initiation

Affiliation with deviant peers is a correlate of adolescent alcohol use; however, the mechanism accounting for this association remains unclear, particularly with respect to initiation of alcohol use in early adolescence. This prospective study examines perceived peer attitudes and use as a mediator between peer delinquency and initiation of alcohol use, and how parenting may moderate vulnerability to this risk pathway. Participants included 371 11-13 year-old adolescents (55.5% female, 83.0% Caucasian). Results suggested that high levels of peer delinquency prospectively predicted perceived peer approval and use of alcohol and that peer approval and use of alcohol prospectively predicted initiation of alcohol use. Thus, reinforcement and modeling of alcohol use appear to be important mechanisms by which delinquent peers influence the initiation of drinking. There was no support for parental warmth or control as moderators of peer influence.     

Illuminating the relationship between bullying and substance use among middle and high school youth

The increased prevalence and negative impact of bullying and substance use among youth has been established independently in the literature; however, few researchers have examined the association between involvement in bullying and substance use across middle and high school youth. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the self-reported prevalence of bullying and substance use (alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana) among youth in middle and high school. Middle and high school students from 16 school districts across a large metropolitan area (N=78,333) completed a school-based survey. Scales were created to examine involvement in bullying, victimization, and substance use. A link between involvement in bullying and substance use was evident. Youth involved in bullying were more likely than students not involved in bullying to use substances, with bully-victims reporting the greatest levels of substance use. Differences at the school level and across status (i.e., bullies, victims, and bully-victims) are discussed. Implications for practice and prevention and intervention programs are offered. Findings support the need for continued research into risky behaviors, such as substance use, that are correlated with bullying behavior and may contribute to an increase in negative outcomes.