American Cancer Society guideline for the early detection of cervical neoplasia and cancer

An update to the American Cancer Society (ACS) guideline regarding screening for the early detection of cervical neoplasia and cancer, based on recommendations from a formal review and recent workshop, is presented. The new screening recommendations address when to begin screening, when screening may be discontinued, whether to screen women who have had a hysterectomy, appropriate screening intervals, and new screening technologies, including liquid-based cytology and HPV DNA testing.     

Mammography screening of women in their 40s: impact of changes in screening guidelines

BACKGROUND.: In March 1997, the American Cancer Society (ACS) updated its recommended mammography screening interval for women ages 40-49 years from once every 1 to 2 years to once every year. At the same time, the National Cancer Institute (NCI), which had previously not recommended routine screening of women in their 40s, began recommending screening at 1 to 2-year intervals. These events occurred during the data collection phase of a prospective study of mammography screening and, thereby, provided an unexpected opportunity to examine the potential influences of changing guidelines on women's beliefs about how frequently they should obtain screening exams. METHODS.: This analysis included 1451 African American and white women ages 40-79 years, who obtained an "index" screening exam between October 1996 and January 1998. In baseline and 2-year follow-up telephone interviews, respondents provided information on demographic, socioeconomic, health history, medical care, behavioral and psychosocial factors, and on how frequently they believed women of their age should obtain screening mammograms. RESULTS.: After the ACS and NCI announcements of new screening guidelines for women in their 40s, a significant increase in endorsement of annual screening among women ages 40-49 years was observed, consistent with the ACS recommendation for annual screening in that age group. No increase in endorsement of annual screening among women ages 50 years and older was evident during the same time period. CONCLUSIONS.: Women's beliefs about how frequently they should obtain mammography screenings appear to change in response to changes in recommendations of high-profile health organizations, particularly when those recommendations call for an increase in screening.     

Present standards for cervical cancer screening

Survival rates for cancer of the uterine cervix have improved over the last 40 years largely because of the impact of screening measures such as the Pap smear. The ability to screen and treat women for preinvasive disease, cervical dysplasia, is the key factor leading to the reduction in the incidence of invasive cervical cancer. More recently, the ability to test women for the causative agent, the human papilloma virus, has emerged as a potential screening tool. New research has focused on new technologies for Pap smear screening such as thin layer technology, the appropriate intervals for screening, and the appropriate methods of incorporation of human papilloma virus testing into the screening protocols. Reviews of published studies evaluating the efficacy of new technologies suggest that there is still insufficient information to confirm improved outcome; however, results to date suggest that thin layer Pap smear technology may improve sensitivity in the detection of cervical dysplasia. Automated rescreening technologies in use may decrease the number of false-negative Pap smears and are an option for laboratories. Various professional groups and countries have differing recommendations on the interval for screening, primarily on the basis of cost-effectiveness. Some of the most important new information this year regarding cervical cancer screening includes the new Bethesda System for the reporting of Pap smears and the new guidelines for the management of the abnormal Pap smear by the American Society of Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology. These guidelines incorporate human papilloma virus testing based on a multicenter trial documenting its efficacy in the triage of women with atypical squamous cells on Pap smear. These recommendations are reviewed along with the current literature on cervical cancer screening.     

Breast Cancer Screening with Mammography

There has been a great deal of controversy regarding the change in breast cancer screening recommendations released by the US Preventive Services Task Force in November 2009. Despite limited new data, the Task Force changed their previous recommendations delaying initial screening of asymptomatic women from age 40 to age 50 and recommending biennial rather than annual breast cancer screening. It is important to fully understand the nuances of the analysis and modeling upon which the revisions were based in order to accurately inform patients of the risks and benefits of breast cancer screening. Several new studies as well as additional guidelines have also been released over the past year which further inform the debate, and a number of commentaries have helped to place the risks and benefit in clinical and societal context.     

Determinants of non-compliance to recommendations on breast cancer screening among women participating in the French E3N cohort study.

Evidence of the benefits of screening for breast cancer using mammography after the age of 50 is considered sufficient. Information on the determinants of compliance to the recommendations on mammography is needed to identify women to which public health messages should be specifically addressed and also to interpret results from epidemiological data in which some breast cancer cases are detected through screening programmes and others are not. The general characteristics and dietary data of French women participating in the E3N cohort study were analysed. Odds ratios of the frequency of non-compliance to recommendations on breast cancer screening were computed in women over and under the age of 50. Non-compliant women over 50 (i.e. never attenders) had a poorer access to physicians and poorer health with regard to specific risk factors even after adjustment for age and educational level. Women who were used to referring to gynaecologists early in life were better attenders later on. Logically, women under 50 who were over-screened, as compared to public health recommendations, had the opposite characteristics. Public health recommendations should be designed specifically according to targeted subgroups of women. Determinants of attendance for screening should be kept in mind in the interpretation of epidemiological studies in which some cases may be over-screened and others not.     

Evaluating a risk-based model for mammographic screening of women in their forties

BACKGROUND: A risk-based model was developed for recommendations for mammography screening of women in their 40s. We determined retrospectively the proportion of women already diagnosed in their 40s with breast cancer (BC) who would have been recommended for mammography screening by this model. METHODS: Information was obtained from 404 women who were diagnosed with BC in their 40s from 1990 to 1998 at a large midwestern hospital. Data on BC detection method, mammography history, and BC risk factors existing before diagnosis were obtained from 353 of these women by mailed questionnaires. Data for an additional 51 women who had died were obtained by chart review. Two algorithms, the Exact Age Procedure (EAP) and the Grouped Age Procedure (GAP), were used to calculate the proportion of women who would have been recommended for mammography screening based on age, race, and BC risk factors. RESULTS: Of women diagnosed with BC in their 40s, 74.5% would have been recommended for screening by the EAP and 70.5% by the GAP. The model would have recommended screening for approximately one half of the women who had no conventional risk factors (54% by EAP, 48% by GAP). CONCLUSION: Although use of the risk-based model could result in more recommendations for screening than individual recommendations based on patient-physician discussions about the woman's risk factors, one in four women diagnosed with breast cancer in their 40s would not have been recommended for mammography screening.     

Screening behavior in women at increased familial risk for breast cancer

This multicenter study examined the adherence of high-risk women to screening recommendations for breast and ovarian cancer following consultation at a familial cancer clinic (FCC). Self-report questionnaires assessing recall of screening advice, tests undertaken, risk perception, anxiety (Impact of Events Scale) and demographics were mailed to 396 consecutive eligible women who had attended one of six FCCs a median of 3.6 years prior. Family history, genetic test results and screening recommendations were abstracted from medical records. 182/266 (68.4%) women responded with 130 lost to follow-up. The proportions of women undertaking at least the recommended frequency of screening tests were: breast␣self examination (BSE) 50.4%, clinical breast examination (CBE) 66.0%, mammography 82.2%, transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS) 70.0%, CA125 84.0%. Factors associated with adherence to screening were: higher anxiety for BSE and CBE, being BRCA1/2 positive for CBE, older age, method of arrangement and having at least one affected first degree relative for mammography. Factors significantly associated with over-adherence were higher scores for anxiety for BSE and CBE and younger age (< 40 years) for TVUS. Between 41.3% (BSE) and 57.6% (CBE) of women incorrectly recalled their screening recommendations. A substantial minority of high-risk women do not adhere to screening advice. Strategies to improve the accuracy of recall of recommendations and the uptake of recommended screening are required.This study was supported by the National Breast Cancer Centre, Australia.Yoland Antill is the recipient of a Goodman Fielder National Breast Cancer Foundation Scholarship.Kelly-Anne Phillips is the Cancer Council Victoria, Dr John Colebatch Clinical Research Fellow     

American Cancer Society, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and American Society for Clinical Pathology screening guidelines for the prevention and early detection of cervical cancer

An update to the American Cancer Society (ACS) guideline regarding screening for the early detection of cervical precancerous lesions and cancer is presented. The guidelines are based on a systematic evidence review, contributions from 6 working groups, and a recent symposium cosponsored by the ACS, the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and the American Society for Clinical Pathology, which was attended by 25 organizations. The new screening recommendations address age-appropriate screening strategies, including the use of cytology and high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) testing, follow-up (eg, the management of screen positives and screening intervals for screen negatives) of women after screening, the age at which to exit screening, future considerations regarding HPV testing alone as a primary screening approach, and screening strategies for women vaccinated against HPV16 and HPV18 infections.     

Differences in predictors of cervical and breast cancer screening by screening need in uninsured Latino women

BACKGROUND: Latino women experience higher mortality for cervical cancer and lower 5-year survival for breast cancer than non-Latino White women. Adherence with screening recommendations can increase chances of survival, yet the factors that influence screening behaviors in uninsured women are not well documented. METHODS: Uninsured Latino women (N = 467) recruited in four US cities participated in the study. Logistic regression was used to model adherence to recommendations by screening type (cervical or breast cancer) and screening need (needs to obtain initial screening, overdue for rescreening, up-to-date with rescreening). RESULTS: Predictors differed by type of screening and screening need. Women who reported exposure to cancer education were more likely to have had a mammogram and to be up-to-date with Pap smear screening than women without such exposure. Women who were younger, had more than a sixth grade education, and/or had children were more likely to have had a Pap smear. Older women who had been in the US the longest were more likely to be overdue for a Pap smear. Women with incomes 5000 to 7000 were more likely to have obtained a mammogram. Regional differences were found with respect to mammography screening and maintenance behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to cancer education is an important predictor of screenings among uninsured urban Latino women. The potential of creating educational interventions that can increase screening rates among women who evidence health disparities is encouraging. Recruitment strategies to reach women in need of screenings are provided.     

The predicted effect of changes in cervical screening practice in the UK: results from a modelling study

In 2003, the National Health Service Cervical Screening Programme (NHSCSP) announced that its screening interval would be reduced to 3 years in women aged 25-49 and fixed at 5 years in those aged 50-64, and that women under 25 years will no longer be invited for screening. In order to assess these and possible further changes to cervical screening practice in the UK, we constructed a mathematical model of cervical HPV infection, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and invasive cervical cancer, and of UK age-specific screening coverage rates, screening intervals and treatment efficacy. The predicted cumulative lifetime incidence of invasive cervical cancer in the UK is 1.70% in the absence of screening and 0.77% with pre-2003 screening practice. A reduction in lifetime incidence to 0.63% is predicted following the implementation of the 2003 NHSCSP recommendations, which represents a 63% reduction compared to incidence rates in the UK population if it were unscreened. The model suggests that, after the implementation of the 2003 recommendations, increasing the sensitivity of the screening test regime from its current average value of 56 to 90% would further reduce the cumulative lifetime incidence of invasive cervical cancer to 0.46%. Alternatively, extending screening to women aged 65-79 years would further reduce the lifetime incidence to 0.56%. Screening women aged 20-25 years would have minimal impact, with the cumulative lifetime incidence decreasing from 0.63 to 0.61%. In conclusion, the study supports the 2003 recommendations for changes to cervical screening intervals.     

American Cancer Society guidelines for breast screening with MRI as an adjunct to mammography

New evidence on breast Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) screening has become available since the American Cancer Society (ACS) last issued guidelines for the early detection of breast cancer in 2003. A guideline panel has reviewed this evidence and developed new recommendations for women at different defined levels of risk. Screening MRI is recommended for women with an approximately 20-25% or greater lifetime risk of breast cancer, including women with a strong family history of breast or ovarian cancer and women who were treated for Hodgkin disease. There are several risk subgroups for which the available data are insufficient to recommend for or against screening, including women with a personal history of breast cancer, carcinoma in situ, atypical hyperplasia, and extremely dense breasts on mammography. Diagnostic uses of MRI were not considered to be within the scope of this review.     

Cervical cancer screening in Denmark

Denmark is divided into 15 counties and it is up to regional politicians and the health authority in each county to organise the cervical screening programmes. The National Board of Health issued national guidelines and recommendations for the cervical cancer screening back in 1986, and these guidelines are now, in 1998, almost fully implemented. In this study, a literature review on cervical cancer screening in Denmark, review of local guidelines, personal interviews with pathologists and collection of information about the education of cytotechnologists in Denmark was carried out. In Denmark in 1997 90% of women aged 23-59 years and 46% of women aged 60-74 years were covered by organised screening. A total of 650000 smears were taken annually. This figure corresponds to screening of all Danish women aged 25-59 years on average, every second year. The national recommendation is screening every third year. Thus, as the incidence of cervical cancer in Denmark is decreasing, we could probably move towards a longer screening interval. However, before the Danish recommendations are changed, more detailed data on the actual performances of screening programmes are warranted.     

Physician and patient characteristics associated with outpatient breast cancer screening recommendations in the United States: analysis of the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey Data 1996–2004

Background The primary goal of breast cancer screening tests is to find cancer at an early stage before a person has any symptoms. Evidence suggests that screening examinations such as mammography and clinical breast examinations (CBE) are effective in early detection of breast cancer. Physician recommendation is an important reason many women undergo screening. This study examined the physician and patients related factors associated with physician recommendations for breast cancer screening in the United States (US) outpatient settings. Methods This cross-sectional study used data from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NAMCS) from 1996–2004. Women aged ≥40 years were included in the study sample. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to study the objectives. Results Weighted analysis indicated that physicians performed 198 million CBEs and made 110 million mammography recommendations over the study period (1996–2004). Patients’ age, duration of visits, history of previous breast cancer diagnosis, and source of insurance were significant predictors of screening recommendations in this population. Obstetricians and gynecologists were more likely to perform a CBE and recommend mammography than other specialty physicians. Conclusions These findings indicated that there were certain disparities regarding the physician recommendations of breast cancer screening for women in the US outpatient settings.     

Mammography screening among Chinese-American women

BACKGROUND: Breast carcinoma is the most common major malignancy among several Asian-American populations. This study surveyed mammography screening knowledge and practices among Chinese-American women. METHODS: In 1999, the authors conducted a cross-sectional, community-based survey in Seattle, Washington. Bilingual and bicultural interviewers administered surveys in Mandarin, Cantonese, or English at participants' homes. RESULTS: The survey cooperation rate (responses among reachable and eligible households) was 72% with 350 eligible women (age >or= 40 years with no prior history of breast carcinoma or double mastectomy). Seventy-four percent of women reported prior mammography screening, and 61% of women reported screening in the last 2 years. In multivariate analysis, a strong association was found between mammography screening and recommendations by physicians and nurses (prior screening: odds ratio [OR], 16.0; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 7.8-35.0; recent screening: OR, 7.0; 95% CI, 3.8-13.6). This finding applied to both recent immigrants (< 15 years in the U.S.) and earlier immigrants (>or= 15 years in the U.S.). Thirty-two percent of women reported that the best way to detect breast carcinoma was a modality other than mammogram. CONCLUSIONS: The authors recommend a multifaceted approach to increase mammography screening by Chinese-American women: recommendations from the provider plus targeted education to address the effectiveness of screening mammography compared with breast self examination and clinical breast examination.     

Rome women's screening study: knowledge, attitudes and practices of women regarding screening for breast and cervical cancer

A survey on knowledge, attitudes, and practice regarding breast and cervical cancer screening was conducted in Rome on a sample of women aged 18-64 years. Of the 793 interviewees, 31.9% had undergone at least one breast imaging examination; examinations were more frequent in women over 35 and in those familiar with breast self-examination and female pathophysiology. Seventy percent of the women had had at least one Pap smear. Women were classified as Pap smear underusers (26.0%), appropriate users (28.8%), and overusers (45.2%) as compared to standard screening recommendations, according to their age and their lifetime number of smears. Age over 35 was associated with both underuse and overuse. Such inappropriate screening patterns could be related in part to the fact that the women reported that their physicians recommendations for Pap smear frequency were once a year or more in 62%, and once every two or three years in only 2%.     

2012年美国宫颈癌筛查新指南解读

本文就2012年ACOG、ACS/ASCCP/ASCP指南中宫颈癌筛查的新建议及相关证据进行解读,并对宫颈癌筛查的新标志物、HPV检测新技术和未来可能的宫颈癌筛查新策略进行综述。2012年宫颈癌筛查新指南建议,宫颈癌筛查应从21岁开始,无论性生活开始的年龄或是否有其他行为相关的危险因素,对21岁以前的人群不应进行筛查。新指南还延长了细胞学检查的时间间隔：21~29岁的妇女细胞学检查间隔时间由过去的2年延长至3年,在30~65岁无高危因素的妇女中若HPV联合细胞学两项检查均为阴性可将筛查间隔时间延长至5年,并将终止筛查的年龄提前至65岁,因良性病变（无宫颈CIN2+或宫颈癌病史）而行子宫切除术的妇女不需要再进行筛查。但已接种疫苗妇女仍需继续同未接种疫苗的妇女一样按照指南进行宫颈癌筛查。最新的指南中将HPV联合细胞学检查作为30岁以上妇女的最佳筛查策略,并建议将HPV16、18分型检测作为分流HPV检测阳性而细胞学阴性患者的标准。HPVE6/E7mRNA、p16和Ki-67等新标志物的检测可能成为HPV检测阳性而细胞学检查阴性的患者进行分流管理的新生物学指标,并使筛查策略得到优化。     

《中国女性乳腺癌筛查指南》解读（精简版）

乳腺癌是中国女性最常见的恶性肿瘤，早期筛查是提高乳腺癌早诊早治最佳途径。中国女性乳腺癌发病高峰年龄与欧美国家乳腺癌发病高峰年龄明显不同，制定适合中国女性特点的群体性乳腺癌筛查指南势在必行。中国抗癌协会与国家肿瘤临床医学研究中心（天津医科大学肿瘤医院）组织专家在分析总结中国女性乳腺癌筛查数据的基础上，参考欧美及东亚等国家的最新乳腺癌筛查指南或共识，分别从筛查起始年龄、筛查方法、筛查时间间隔3个方面，针对中国女性乳腺癌一般风险人群和高危风险人群制定以人群为基础的《中国女性乳腺癌筛查指南》，本文对该指南进行解读以供乳腺癌筛查相关人士参考。      

中国乳腺癌筛查与早期诊断指南

中国抗癌协会乳腺癌专业委员会于2020年4月—2021年11月,采用改编《欧盟委员会乳腺癌指南》的方法,编写制定了《中国乳腺癌筛查和早期诊断指南》（后文简称指南）。指南遵循GRADE系统方法,共包括50条推荐意见和5条专家共识,涉及乳腺癌的筛查、早期诊断、复发风险基因检测以及筛查项目中的沟通和培训等专业领域。指南推荐意见的形成考虑了目前最佳循证医学证据、中国女性群体的价值观念与偏好、成本和资源配置等因素。在应用本指南推荐的筛查和诊断技术时,应结合各地实际情况。