Intraureteral metallic endoprosthesis in the treatment of ureteral strictures

OBJECTIVE: We report our experience on intraureteral metallic stents placement for the treatment of malignant and benign ureteral strictures. METHODS: Eight patients (six men and two women) with inoperable malignant or benign ureteral strictures, underwent insertion of metallic stents through percutaneous tracts. Six lesions (three malignant, three benign) involved ureterointestinal anastomoses after cystectomy for bladder cancer and ureteroileal urinary diversion or bladder substitution, and two malignant lesions involved the midureter. Self-expandable stents were used in seven cases and a balloon-expandable stent in the remaining one case. One stent was sufficient in seven ureters, and in one ureter, two overlapping stents were placed. RESULTS: Metallic stents were inserted without technical difficulties in all obstructed ureters and patency was achieved in all patients. Ultrasonography revealed resolution of pre-existing hydronephrosis. The duration of follow-up was 6-17 months (mean, 9 months). One ureter was occluded 8 months after stent placement because of ingrowth of tumor and granulation tissue. The other ureters showed no signs of obstruction during follow-up. No major complications directly attributable to the metallic stent occurred. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that insertion of a metallic stent in the ureter is feasible and safe for the treatment of benign or malignant ureteral strictures. However, more work needs to be done to establish the use of these stents for the treatment of ureteral obstruction.     

食管恶性狭窄内支架治疗和良性狭窄球囊扩张后的随访评价

目的　评价食管恶性狭窄内支架治疗和良性狭窄球囊扩张后的长期随访疗效。方法92例食管狭窄做了内支架或球囊扩张 ,有较完整的随访资料。 5 9例恶性食管狭窄均置入了内支架 ,其中置入支架前后行放射治疗 (简称放疗 )和 (或 )化学药物治疗 (简称化疗 ) 3 7例 ,占 63 % ;3 3例良性食管狭窄做了单纯球囊扩张治疗。内支架置入类型 :国产镍钛记忆合金网孔支架 2 4例 ,带膜支架2 2例 ;国产GianturcoZ形支架 7例 ,带膜支架 4例 ;Ultreflex支架 2例。门诊行食管造影和内窥镜检查随访 78例 ,14例通过电话或信件随访。结果　本组病例经过 1～ 4 1个月的随访观察 ,仅 1例支架发生轻度移位 ,但仍能覆盖病变全长。食管恶性狭窄 17例死亡 ,术后生存时间 2～ 3 0个月 ,平均 8 2个月。死亡原因 :肿瘤多脏器转移 15例 ,心肌梗死 1例 ,其他原因引起死亡 1例。恶性食管狭窄内支架置入后再狭窄 11例 ,因食物在支架内阻塞 1例 ,发生食管 气管瘘 1例 ,因肿瘤组织生长发生狭窄 8例 ,因支架上端组织增生发生狭窄 1例。发生再狭窄的 11例均再次做了内支架置入或球囊扩张治疗。结论　中晚期食管癌内支架置入是解除吞咽困难有效的姑息治疗方法 ,应用带膜支架和同时行放疗、化疗可防止因肿瘤生长而发生再狭窄 ,延缓患者生命。球囊扩     

Metallic stents for the treatment of biliary obstruction: A report of 100 cases

The results of the first 100 patients to receive Gianturco-Rösch “Z” stents is presented along with recommendations for their use. The patient population was comprised of 57 men and 43 women, age range 17–85 years (mean 65 years). Fifty-four of the patients had benign obstruction and 46 had malignant obstruction. Of the benign lesions, 11 had sclerosing cholangitis and the remainder had postoperative strictures. Thirty-one of the malignant obstructions were secondary to cholangiocarcinoma with the majority of the others secondary to metastases from various sources. All but one had multiple systems involved. Patients with benign postoperative strictures were all initially treated with balloon angioplasty; if this failed, stents were inserted. In patients who had stents in place for greater than 1 year, the occlusion rate was 13%. The overall occlusion rate in the 43 patients was 7%. Patients with sclerosing cholangitis did less well. In those with sclerosing cholangitis secondary to intraarterial chemotherapy, the occlusion rate was 77%, and we no longer use the metallic “Z” stent in these patients. The stent was not used for malignant common duct obstruction. All patients had hilar involvement. In the patients with malignant obstruction, 17% reobstructed prior to their death. The patients with cholangiocarcinoma did well with a mean survival time of 14 months and a re-obstruction rate of 16%. All late obstructions were secondary to tumor over-growth either proximal or distal to the stents. We conclude that the “Z” stent is an effective form of treatment in patients with benign postoperative strictures and those with malignant obstruction involving the hilum. We do not recommend it as a replacement for conventional stents, but rather as an additional device that allows treatment of some of the more difficult causes of obstruction.     

Gianturco expandable metallic biliary stents: results of a European clinical trial

Eleven patients with benign strictures (after choledochojejunostomy, n = 10; chronic pancreatitis, n = 1) and 16 with malignant biliary strictures (cancer of the pancreas, n = 7; cholangiocarcinoma, n = 5) were treated with a self-expanding metallic biliary stent. The patients with benign disease had failed treatment with surgical reconstruction and transhepatic balloon dilation. All patients had immediate relief of jaundice and cholangitis. In a follow-up period of 6-21 months, nine of the 11 patients with benign disease had no difficulties with infection, pruritus, or recurrent jaundice. In patients with malignant strictures, the stent produced relief of biliary obstruction unless recurrent tumor invaded the bile ducts. With careful patient selection, this stent appears to be useful in the management of biliary obstruction, particularly in benign disease.     

Metallic stents in benign biliary strictures: Three-year follow-up

Eighteen patients with recurrent benign biliary strictures (BBS) were selected for metallic stents placement because they failed to respond to percutaneous balloon dilatation. None were candidates for surgical corrections. We used “Z” single or double stents in 17 cases and a Wallstent in 1 case. After more than 3 years of follow-up (average period 37 months, range 30–41 months), 10 patients (55.5%) were asymptomatic without signs of bile statis; 5 patients (27.7%) had recurrence of symptoms and were eventually retreated; and 3 patients (16.6%) died, 2 of obstructive jaundice and liver failure and 1 of metastatic gastric cancer. Recurrence was due to stent occlusion by tissue ingrowth in 3 cases, stent migration in 1 case, and an inflammatory lesion of the papilla of Vater in another case, with patency of the metallic stent. The overall patency rate, at 3-year follow-up was 68.7%. In our series, the main factor determining long-term patency of metallic stents has been reactive tissue ingrowth. Nevertheless, long-term results obtained with metallic stents in recurrent benign biliary strictures should be considered satisfactory. In selected patients, metallic stents may represent the only long-term treatment available for maintaining bile flow.     

Interventional management of tracheobronchial strictures

Tracheobronchial balloon dilation and stent placement have been well used in the treatment of patients with benign and/or malignant diseases. Balloon dilation is the first option in the treatment of benign airway stenosis. Although balloon dilation is simple and fast, recurrence rate is high. Stent placement promptly relieves acute airway distress from malignant extraluminal and intraluminal airway obstruction. Temporary stent placement may be an alternative for benign airway strictures refractory to balloon dilation. This article reviews the indications, pre-procedure evaluation, technique, outcomes and complications of balloon dilation and stent placement with regard to benign and malignant tracheobronchial stenoses.     

Covered metallic stent placement in the management of cervical esophageal strictures

PURPOSE: To describe the authors' experience with self-expandable covered metallic stents in 16 patients with malignant and benign cervical esophageal strictures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixteen expandable covered metallic stents were placed with fluoroscopic guidance in 16 patients (14 men, two women; mean age, 60 years; age range, 26-75 years) with malignant and benign strictures of the cervical esophagus. The causes of strictures were ingestion of corrosive agents (n = 3), biopsy-proved squamous cell carcinoma (n = 12), and postsurgical scarring (n = 1). The mean dysphagia scores at presentation were compared with those after stent placement by using the Wilcoxon signed rank test. RESULTS: Stent placement was technically successful in all patients. The reduction in the mean dysphagia score after stent placement was statistically significant (P = .0327). All patients complained of mild to severe foreign body sensation, with four reporting severe pain necessitating immediate stent removal. With the exception of one patient with limited follow-up, complications requiring intervention occurred in all patients, including migration in nine patients and tissue hyperproliferation in two. Of the 12 patients with a malignant stricture of the esophagus, four patients eventually underwent gastrostomy for the placement of a feeding tube and one patient underwent surgery. All four patients with a benign cervical stricture failed to achieve long-lasting improvement with temporary stent placement. CONCLUSIONS: Although the placement of covered metallic stents in the cervical esophagus provides adequate initial palliation, it is associated with poor patient tolerance and a high complication rate.     

Patency and complications of percutaneously inserted metallic stents in malignant biliary obstruction

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to analyze the patency of percutaneously inserted metallic stents in malignant biliary obstruction and to evaluate all the complications associated with the stents and the reinterventions needed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty-nine patients with 42 malignant strictures were treated percutaneously with 55 metallic self-expandable stents. Forty-eight were Wallstents and seven were Memotherm stents. Twenty-five strictures were hilar, 16 were in the common bile duct, and one was in the hepaticojejunal anastomosis. The patients were followed until death and the mean follow-up was 6.4 months. RESULTS: Stent insertion was successful in 97% of the patients. Thirty percent had early complications (<30 days), and as many as 66% had late complications, including stent occlusions, which were seen in 10 patients. The patency rates of patients with cholangio-carcinoma were significantly lower than those of the patients with other diagnoses. There was also a tendency toward obstruction with less dilation of the stents, Y, T or tandem-style stent placement, an increasing number of stents, longer strictures, and hilar strictures. Thirty-one percent of the patients alive after the first 30 days had late reinterventions. CONCLUSIONS: Although metallic stents offer an alternative in the palliation of malignant bile duct obstruction, there seem to be numerous early and late complications.     

食管内支架置入后的随访研究

目的食管狭窄置入金属支架后长期随访，观察其疗效和并发症。方法４３例食管狭窄放置了金属支架患者有较完整的随访资料。良性狭窄１４例，恶性狭窄２９例。置入Ｕｌｔｒｅｆｌｅｘ支架３２例，ＧｉａｎｔｕｒｃｏＺ型带膜支架４例，国产网状支架６例，Ｗａｌｓｔｅｎｔ支架１例。门诊随访行食管造影和内窥镜检查２７例，电话或信访１６例。结果１～３２个月随访观察，无支架移位。２４例死亡，术后生存时间１７天至２８个月，平均６．８个月。死亡原因：肿瘤广泛转移１９例，肺部感染２例，其他原因引起死亡３例。发生再狭窄１６例，为支架内或两端发生狭窄。肿瘤组织生长造成的狭窄４例，１２例为食管腔内组织过度增生，这类狭窄全部发生在置入支架后４～５个月。支架内狭窄５例，支架两端狭窄１１例，其中１０例为支架上端狭窄。１２例行再次球囊扩张或支架置入。结论肿瘤的生长，特别是粘膜和纤维组织增生是引起再狭窄的主要原因，支架上端狭窄更容易发生吞咽困难。由于再狭窄的发生率较高，对于良性食管狭窄的支架成型术应严格选择病例。     

Early symptomatic strictures after gastric surgery: palliation with balloon dilation and stent placement

PURPOSE: To evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of balloon dilation and stent placement in the treatment of early benign anastomotic strictures after gastric surgery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From 1997 to 2006, 63 patients with early (< or =3 months) benign anastomotic strictures after gastric surgery underwent fluoroscopic balloon dilation or stent placement due to obstructive symptoms. In all patients, balloon dilation was initially performed. Stent placement was indicated in patients who showed poor response to repeat balloon dilation. RESULTS: Balloon dilations were successfully performed in all 63 patients, with only three intramural tears. Thirty-one of the 63 patients (49%) showed good response to initial balloon dilation and required no further treatment until the end of follow-up or death. Conversely, 32 patients (51%) had poor or no response or recurrence after initial balloon dilation and required multiple balloon dilations (n = 20), stent placement (n = 7), percutaneous gastrojejunostomy (n = 2), and/or surgical revision (n = 3). At multivariate analysis, the anastomotic site was the only independent factor predictive of the response to balloon therapy (P < .001). During a mean follow-up of 12 months, overall clinical success was achieved in 56 of the 63 patients (89%) after a single balloon dilation (n = 31), multiple balloon dilations (n = 20), and stent placement (n = 5). CONCLUSIONS: Balloon dilation is safe and effective for the treatment of patients with early benign anastomotic strictures after gastric surgery. Stent placement can be effective in selected patients with early benign anastomotic strictures refractory to balloon dilation.     

Treatment of tracheobronchial obstruction with a polytetrafluoroethylene-covered retrievable expandable nitinol stent

PURPOSE: To evaluate the clinical effectiveness of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-covered retrievable expandable nitinol stents in tracheobronchial strictures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: With fluoroscopic guidance, PTFE-covered retrievable expandable nitinol stents were placed in 15 symptomatic patients with benign (n = 6) or malignant (n = 9) tracheobronchial strictures. Complications and improvement in respiratory status were evaluated. Stents were removed electively 6 months after placement in benign strictures or if complications occurred. Membrane degradation or separation from the wire mesh was evaluated in removed stents. RESULTS: A total of 17 stents were successfully placed and were well tolerated in all patients. Sputum retention, stent migration, and tissue hyperplasia occurred in 23.5% (n = 4), 17.6% (n = 3), and 17.6% (n = 3) of stents, respectively. A total of 11 stents were successfully removed electively 6 months after placement (n = 4) or when complications occurred (n = 7). All 11 such stents were removed without difficulty with use of standard techniques, antecedent balloon dilation being necessary in two cases as a result of tissue hyperplasia. No removed stent showed signs of membrane degradation, and two removed stents showed signs of membrane separation from the mesh. CONCLUSIONS: PTFE-covered retrievable expandable nitinol stents were effective in the treatment of tracheobronchial strictures. Stent removal was easy with use of standard techniques, and no removed stent showed evidence of membrane degradation.     

Treatment of a benign anastomotic duodenojejunal stricture with a polytetrafluoroethylene-covered retrievable expandable nitinol stent

Temporary placement of a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-covered retrievable expandable nitinol stent was performed to treat a benign anastomotic duodenojejunal stricture that was refractory to repeated balloon dilation procedures. The procedure provided a favorable outcome for the patient and was completed without complications. This result suggests that successful treatment of benign strictures of the gastric outlet or duodenum is possible with use of retrievable stents.     

Benign Strictures of the Esophagus and Gastric Outlet: Interventional Management

Benign strictures of the esophagus and gastric outlet are difficult to manage conservatively and they usually require intervention to relieve dysphagia or to treat the stricture-related complications. In this article, authors review the non-surgical options that are used to treat benign strictures of the esophagus and gastric outlet, including balloon dilation, temporary stent placement, intralesional steroid injection and incisional therapy.     

Initial experience with Song's covered duodenal stent in the treatment of malignant gastroduodenal obstruction.

PURPOSE: Initial experience with use of Song's covered duodenal stent in the treatment of malignant gastroduodenal obstruction is reported. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixteen consecutive patients with malignant gastroduodenal obstruction were treated with peroral placement of Song's covered duodenal stent. The mean age was 58 years (range, 28-90 y). Gastroduodenal obstruction was caused by gastric (n = 8), metastatic (n = 2), gallbladder (n = 3), pancreatic (n = 2), or ampullary (n = 1) cancer. The disease was considered inoperable in all patients. With use of a flexible 20-F introducing system, seven fully covered, three uncovered, and 10 partially covered duodenal stents were placed under fluoroscopic guidance. RESULTS: The technical success rate was 94% (15 of 16) with no major complications. Symptoms of gastroduodenal obstruction improved in 14 patients. Stent migration was observed in three of seven fully covered stents. Patients with migrated stents required endoscopic stent removal and placement of uncovered duodenal stents. Tumor ingrowth was observed in two thirds of uncovered stents. In the 10 procedures with partially covered duodenal stents, no migration or tumor ingrowth was observed. All patients died 1-48 weeks (mean, 12 weeks) after stent placement. CONCLUSION: Peroral placement of Song's covered duodenal stent is a feasible and effective method of palliation in the majority of patients with malignant gastroduodenal obstruction. Migration of fully covered stents and tumor ingrowth of uncovered stents are important limitations that can be overcome with the use of a partially covered duodenal stent.     

动脉灌注化疗及食管内支架治疗恶性食管狭窄

目的：用动脉管注化疗及食管内支架治疗恶性食管狭窄。方法：对８例食管癌患者分别置放ＷＡＬＬＳＴＥＮＴ,ＳＴＲＥＣＫ－ＥＲＳＴＥＮＴ及ＺＳＴＥＮＴ,共１０个支架,先用导丝探索通过狭窄段,经球囊扩张后置放支架。置放支架１周后行食管动脉管注化疗,１次／４～６周。结果：８例患者造影显示５例患者食管完全梗阻,３例患者严重狭窄。所有患者均一次顺利完成支架置放。３例分别随访１年,２例分别随访８个月及６个月。患者进普食顺利,疗效满意。２例半年后又出现吞咽困难。造影显示原支架上下两端又出现狭窄经第二次置放支架后进食顺利,疗效满意。８例共行供血动脉管注５０次。结论：食管内支架治疗恶性食管狭窄,安全,可靠,疗效好,并发症少。但必须配合动脉灌注化疗     

Delayed complications after esophageal stent placement for treatment of malignant esophageal obstructions and esophagorespiratory fistulas

PURPOSE: To evaluate delayed complications after esophageal expandable metallic stent placement. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From April 1993 to December 1997, 90 expandable metallic stents were placed in 82 consecutive patients with inoperable malignant esophageal obstruction (n = 49) or malignant esophagorespiratory fistula (n = 33). Stents used included covered Gianturco-Rosch Z stents (n = 20), Wallstents (covered, n = 31; uncovered, n = 13), and Ultraflex stents (covered, n = 8; uncovered, n = 10). Patients were followed prospectively and monitored for delayed complications, defined as major (hemorrhage, tracheal compression, stent migration, perforation or fistula formation, granulomatous obstruction, tumor ingrowth and overgrowth, funnel phenomenon, and stent covering disruption) or minor (reflux, chest pain, and food impaction). RESULTS: Mean survival was 4.5 months after stent placement (range, 3 weeks to 26 months). The overall incidence of delayed complications was 64.6%, with 17 patients (20.7%) experiencing more than one complication. The rates of delayed complications in patients with Z stents, Wallstents, and Ultraflex stents were 75.0%, 68.1%, and 44.4%, respectively (P <.05). Most complications were life-threatening and occurred more frequently when stents were placed in the proximal third of the esophagus, compared with more distally (P <.05). Thirteen patients (15.9%) died from complications directly related to stent placement. CONCLUSION: Esophageal stent placement for malignant obstruction or fistula is associated with a substantial incidence of delayed complications.     

Percutaneous management of benign biliary strictures with balloon dilation and self-expanding metallic stents

Seventy patients with benign biliary strictures were treated by means of percutaneous balloon dilation and stenting. Patients with stenoses relapsing during catheter stenting (18/70) were treated with self-expanding metallic stents. Results were evaluated in 56 patients; in patients without sclerosing cholangitis (n=47) the patency rate with both modalities of treatment was 96%, while in the patients with secondary sclerosing cholangitis (n=9), it was 33%, for a total success rate of 86%. The average follow-up was 23 months (range 3–72 months). Major complications included one death for septic shock (1%), three severe hemorrhages (4%), two of which required arterial embolization, two pleural effusions (3%), and one liver abscess following arterial embolization. Moderate fever for 1–2 days was a common finding after percutaneous puncture and balloon dilation. Percutaneous management of benign biliary strictures so far has been attempted only in surgical failures or in complicated cases. In view of our midterm results it may well become the initial treatment in many patients.     

Nitinol Esophageal Stents: New Designs and Clinical Indications

Purpose To evaluate the clinical use of covered and noncovered, knitted nitinol stents in patients presenting new stent indications. Methods Self-expandable, knitted nitinol stents were implanted in four patients for treatment of dysphagia. In two patients who had malignant strictures and had esophago-respiratory fistulae and in one patient with an esophagocutaneous fistula, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-covered stents were implanted. One patient received a noncovered stent, but a retrograde approach through a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) fistula had to be chosen for recanalization of an esophageal occulusion. Two patients received stents for treatment of benign strictures. Results Recanalization of the stricture and stent implantation were performed under fluoroscopic control without any procedure-related morbidity or mortality. Dysphagia improved in all patients and the esophageal fistulae could be sealed off by covered stents. During a maximum follow-up of 18 months, there was no stent migration or esophageal perforation. Complications observed were stent stenosis due to food impaction (1/4) and benign stent stenosis (2/2). Most complications could be treated by the interventional radiologist. Conclusion Self-expandable, covered Nitinol stents provide an option for the treatment of dysphagia combined with esophageal fistulae. In combination with interventional radiology techniques, even complex strictures are accessible. For benign strictures, the value of stent treatment has not yet been proven.     

国产支架对食管恶性狭窄的疗效分析

目的 评价并比较国产食管内支架对食管恶性狭窄的治疗效果。方法 26例食管狭窄患，其中食管和贲门癌18例，食管—胃吻合口狭窄6例，食管狭窄伴纵隔和气管瘘各1例，均实施介入治疗。结果 26例食管狭窄或伴食管瘘患全部使用国产支架X线监视下经口腔一次置入成功。其中12例应用带膜支架。结论 国产食管支架在缓解食管狭窄、提高患生活质量上安全有效，值得推广。     

输尿管狭窄支架置入术的临床应用

目的探讨塑料支架和金属内支架在输尿管狭窄中的应用价值,寻求支架的合理选用。方法对28例输尿管良恶性狭窄患者,采用经皮肾穿刺顺行法或经尿道逆行法插管,行球囊扩张后支架置入。10例置入金属内支架,18例置入塑料支架。结果手术成功率100%,随访2~48个月,患者尿路梗阻解除,临床症状减轻或消失,感染得到控制,肾功能好转。12例恶性狭窄患者,能耐受常规剂量动脉插管化疗。结论输尿管狭窄支架置入术,具有创伤小,操作简单,疗效显著,值得推广。金属内支架通畅性好,在良性输尿管狭窄中,疗效确切,两种支架可酌情选用。