Sprint running: from fundamental mechanics to practice—a review

In this review, we examine the literature in light of the mechanical principles that govern linear accelerated running. While the scientific literature concerning sprint mechanics is comprehensive, these principles of fundamental mechanics present some pitfalls which can (and does) lead to misinterpretations of findings. Various models of sprint mechanics, most of which build on the spring–mass paradigm, are discussed with reference to both the insight they provide and their limitations. Although much research confirms that sprinters to some extent behave like a spring–mass system with regard to gross kinematics (step length, step rate, ground contact time, and lower limb deformation), the laws of motion, supported by empirical evidence, show that applying the spring–mass model for accelerated running has flaws. It is essential to appreciate that models are pre-set interpretations of reality; finding that a model describes the motor behaviour well is not proof of the mechanism behind the model. Recent efforts to relate sprinting mechanics to metabolic demands are promising, but have the same limitation of being model based. Furthermore, a large proportion of recent literature focuses on the interaction between total and horizontal (end-goal) force. We argue that this approach has limitations concerning fundamental sprinting mechanics. Moreover, power analysis based on isolated end-goal force is flawed. In closing, some prominent practical concepts and didactics in sprint running are discussed in light of the mechanical principles presented. Ultimately, whereas the basic principles of sprinting are relatively simple, the way an athlete manages the mechanical constraints and opportunities is far more complex.

     

着鞋和触地方式对慢跑时足部受力特征的影响

目的探讨穿鞋和裸足跑在不同触地方式下对足部受力特征的影响。方法利用Medilogic鞋垫式足底压力测试系统和Kistler三维测力台采集12名健康男性受试者在着鞋与裸足情况下分别进行后跟触地与前掌触地慢跑(3 m/s)时的受力特征,包括地面反作用力、冲击力峰值、最大负载率、足底压力峰值以及冲量。结果 (1)后跟触地时,穿着运动鞋可以显著降低最大负载率,并且延缓冲击力峰值出现的时间。前掌触地时,穿鞋时的最大蹬地力量要显著大于裸足;(2)不同触地方式对于足底各区域压力峰值参数的影响相较于着鞋条件更多,主要表现为两种触地方式之间对于足中区和足后区足底压力峰值和出现时间的差异。结论不同触地方式对慢跑时的足部受力影响更为显著。穿鞋后跟触地跑能降低冲击负荷,而裸足前掌触地跑则会使足底压力过度集中于足前部,提示慢跑时无论采用何种触地方式均可以通过选择合理的运动鞋来减小足部受力。     

The biomechanic origin of sprint performance enhancement after one-week creatine supplementation

In order to test whether an improvement of maximal sprinting speed after creatine (Cr) supplementation was due to the increase of stride frequency (SF), stride length (SL) or both, 7 subjects ran 4 consecutive sprints after 1 week of placebo or Cr supplementation. SF and SL were assessed by a triaxial accelerometer. Compared to the placebo, Cr induced an increase of running speed (+1.4% p < 0.05) and SF (+1.5%, p < 0.01), but not of SL. The drop in performance following repeated sprints was partially prevented by Cr. In conclusion, exogenous Cr enhanced sprinting performance by increasing SF. This result may be related to the recent findings of shortening in muscular relaxation time after Cr supplementation.     

Knee biomechanical factors associated with patellofemoral pain in recreational runners

BackgroundPatellofemoral pain (PFP) is a common injury among runners. Knee biomechanical factors associated with PFP, however, remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine possible associations between knee biomechanics and symptoms of PFP in recreational runners.MethodsFifteen male and 15 female recreational runners with PFP were enrolled as the PFP group, 30 matched runners without PFP were recruited as the control group. The PFP group was tested running with and without knee pain, while the control group had only one running test. Reflective marker coordinates and ground reaction force data were collected in each test. Knee kinematics and kinetics during running were reduced and compared between groups (PFP group without knee pain and control group) and between pain conditions (PFP group with knee pain and without knee pain), as well as between sexes.ResultsFemale and male participants with PFP had an increased peak knee valgus angle when running without pain compared to matched controls (P = 0.001), and to themselves when running with pain (P = 0.001). Male participants with PFP also had an increased peak knee flexion angle when running without pain compared to matched controls (P = 0.008), however did not decrease their peak knee flexion angle when running with pain (P = 0.245). No significant main effect of group or pain condition on any peak knee joint moment during running was detected (P ≥ 0.175).ConclusionsIncreased peak knee valgus angle during running appears to be a critical biomechanical factor associated with PFP in recreational runners, while decreasing knee valgus angle during running may be an adaptation to reduce symptoms of PFP. Increased peak knee flexion angle during running appears to be another biomechanical factor associated with PFP that is sex specific for male recreational runners.     

Ergometry for estimation of mechanical power output in sprinting in humans using a newly developed self-driven treadmill

An evaluation of mechanical power during walking and running in humans was undertaken after developing a specially designed running ergometer (RE) in which the subjects gripped the handlebar in front of them keeping both arms straight and in a horizontal position. Ten subjects participated in comparisons of the mean horizontal pushing force (MF _am) on the handlebar with the mean horizontal ground reaction force (MF _fp) recorded by force platform under the RE during five different constant speeds of walking or running and sprint running with maximal effort. Mechanical power developed during sprint running on the RE was compared with a 50 m sprint. Mean linear velocity (Mv) of the RE belt was recorded by the rotary encoder attached to the axis of the belt. Mean mechanical power calculated from the handlebar setting (MP _am=MF _am × Mv) was compared to that calculated from force platform recordings (MP _fp=MF _fp × Mv). A high test-retest reproducibility was observed for both MF _fp (r=0.889) and MF _am (r=0.783). Larger values for the coefficient of variation for MF _am (11.3%–15.8%) were observed than for MF _fp (3.3%–8.2%). The MP _am, which were obtained from five different constant speeds of walking, running and sprint running were closely correlated to those of MP _fp (y=0.98x − 19.10,r=0.982, P < 0.001). In sprint running, MP _am was 521.7 W (7.67 W · kg⁻¹) and was correlated to the 50 m sprint time (r=−0.683, P < 0.01). It is concluded that the newly developed RE was useful in the estimation of mechanical power output during human locomotion such as when walking, jogging and sprinting. Accepted: 10 October 2000     

Muscle cell leakage due to long distance training

Summary Abnormal myoglobinemia (above 77 g/1) and free hemoglobin in plasma were found in 16 runners and in nine non runners immediately following distance running. The same abnormalities were found in six elite rowers following rowing. In parallel with the rise in myoglobin and free hemoglobin a rise was found in serum concentrations of cellular enzymes (LDH, CK, ASAT, alkaline phosphatase) and of various metabolites. We found no proteinuria nor casts in the urine. Non runners had a higher rise in serum myoglobin than runners. Competitive running caused a rise in the serum concentration of the heart specific fraction of creatine kinase in seven of the nine (healthy) elite runners. The abnormal findings are only explainable on the basis of leakage of proteins from muscle cells to the circulation in otherwise healthy, well trained persons. Myoglobinemia and a transient rhabdomyolysis is a common phenomenon in long distance running, but evidently also occurs in distance rowing. Three months of running training prevented most of the muscle damage from relaxed jogging in the nine previous non runners. Neither the observed myoglobinemia nor the hemoglobinemia resulted in any significant loss of iron in the urine.Supported by IdrÆttens Forskningsråd, Dansk IdrÆtsforbund     

对五种不同缝合方法在肌腱愈合中的动态生物力学观察

目的 观察5种不同缝合方法在肌腱愈合不同阶段的生物力学特点,为临床肌腱修复提供参考.方法 在成年雌性海兰褐蛋鸡双足2到4趾Ⅱ区建立趾深屈肌腱横断模型,用单线改良Kessler (MK)法、Kessler+Running(K+R)法、双线改良Kessler(DK)法、双套圈(DT)法、改良双套圈(MT)法修复,分别于术后...     

Quadriceps strength to body weight ratio is a significant indicator for initiating jogging after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

BackgroundQuadriceps strength recovery after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction is an important criterion for progress in rehabilitation and return to sports. The purpose of this study was to determine whether quadriceps strength to body weight ratio (QS/BW) is a significant indicator for initiating jogging after ACL reconstruction.MethodsIsokinetic quadriceps strength at 60°/s was measured and a jogging trial was completed 3 months after ACL reconstruction with hamstring tendon autograft in 83 patients (36 male, 47 female; mean age, 26.6 ± 12.4 years). Based on the jogging trial results, patients were assigned to either a successful jogging group (mean velocity ≥ 9 km/h) or an unsuccessful jogging group (mean velocity < 9 km/h). The association between QS/BW and successful jogging after surgery was investigated by multivariate logistic regression analysis and the cut-off value was determined by receiver operating characteristic analysis.ResultsForty-four patients (53.0%) were assigned to the successful jogging group and 39 (47.0%) to the unsuccessful jogging group. QS/BW was independently associated with initiating jogging 3 months after surgery. The cut-off value of QS/BW for successful jogging was 1.45 Nm/kg (area under the curve = 0.94; sensitivity = 88.6%, specificity = 87.2%). All of the patients who initiated jogging with QS/BW of > 1.45 Nm/kg at 3 months returned to sports without recurrence or contralateral injury by 10 months after surgery.ConclusionsQS/BW is a significant indicator for safely initiating jogging 3 months after ACL reconstruction. The cut-off value of QS/BW for initiating jogging was 1.45 Nm/kg.     

In vitro biomechanical testing of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: Traditional versus physiologically relevant load analysis

Various anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) graft-fixation devices exist. In this in vitro study a comparison of biomechanical characteristics of the Cross-Pin and button type fixation devices under practical rehabilitation loads was done. Forty bovine knees and hoof extensor tendons were harvested. After disarticulation, the femoral end of an ACL was prepared with either fixation, using the extensor tendon as graft. The mechanical test was either a single load to failure or load to failure after cycling loads. Twenty specimens were loaded to failure at a rate of 1 mm/s, remaining specimens were cycled between 50 and 250 N for 1000 cycles then failure tested in a similar manner. Results show that both forms of fixation are able to withstand loads that exceed those observed in performing functional activities. Activity-specific stiffness (loads comparable to walking, jogging and stair descent) was lower than linear stiffness for both EndoButton and Cross-Pin, without prior cycling. After cycling, activity-specific stiffness increased to linear stiffness values for the Cross-Pin for all activities. Thus, suggesting that the Cross-Pin provides a more rigid fixation after initial implantation over a wider range of activities, which would theoretically permit a more aggressive rehabilitation protocol and possibly an earlier return to regular activity. In contrast, activity-specific stiffness increased above linear stiffness values for the EndoButton only under heavier loads (jogging and stair descent). Dynamic stiffness was higher and displacement lower for Cross-Pin throughout the cycle test. These results indicate, in ACL reconstruction, that graft complex stiffness should be considered at relevant loads only.     

影响跑步运动耐力的生理学与生物力学因素

文题释义：跑步经济性：是与运动成绩具有高度相关的评测指标,通过检验跑步速度与能量消耗之间的关系,来体现运动员有氧代谢能力的一种指标,跑步经济性的单位与最大摄氧量类似,是mL/(kg·min)。 最大摄氧量：人体在进行有大量肌肉群参与且长时间的剧烈运动时,当心肺功能和肌肉利用氧的能力达到人体极限水平时,单位时间内(每分钟)所能摄取的氧量称为最大摄氧量,其单位为mL/(kg·min)。 背景：跑步经济性被认为是反映耐力运动员尤其是长跑运动员性能的重要指标,通常定义为在给定速度下跑步的能量需求,表示为给定速度下的摄氧量。 目的：综述现有的影响跑步性能的生理学与生物力学因素。 方法：以“running economy,physiological factors,biomechanical and neuromuscular characteristics,spatiotemporal factors,lower Limb kinematic factors,kinetic factors,nutritional interventions”为检索词,检索PubMed数据库(1960至2018年)中与跑步性能、急性或慢性干预措施和其他影响因素等相关的内容。 结果与结论：共得到113篇文献,根据纳入排除标准,对其中58篇文献进行分析。①目前证据表明心肺功能、肌纤维类型、肌肉力量、腿部刚度等生理因素与跑步经济性的改善有关,而跑步者的体温变化和弹性势能与跑步经济性的关系目前没有统一结论;②有利于改善跑步经济性的生物力学因素是步幅频率或长度、垂直振荡、下肢惯性力矩、脚趾离地时腿部伸展以及手臂摆动,而足部与地面的接触时间、躯干倾斜等因素与跑步经济性之间呈现出不一致的关系;③其他的影响因素中,高海拔适应可改善跑步经济性;伸展性和灵活性与跑步经济性之间的关系仍待确定;一些营养干预也受到关注,最明显的是膳食硝酸盐;④尽管该文章已经总结了影响跑步经济性的大部分因素,但未来可以专注于研究个体跑步者,以便确定跑步者的结构和功能能力如何影响跑步经济性,以及后续表现和运动伤害的情况。 ORCID: 0000-0002-0077-6904(徐盛嘉) 中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：组织构建;骨细胞;软骨细胞;细胞培养;成纤维细胞;血管内皮细胞;骨质疏松;组织工程     

Enforced Bipedal Downhill Running Induces Achilles Tendinosis in Rats

Enforced downhill running has been reported to induce tendinosis in the rat supraspinatus tendon but similar exercise failed to induce Achilles tendinosis in this animal. Due to the presence of acromial arch in the shoulder, accessing the supraspinatus tendon with physical modalities is difficult; thus this model may not be suitable for studying the treatment for tendinosis. To develop a rat model for Achilles tendinosis, we tested 14 mature Sprague–Dawley rats by dividing them into 2 groups of 7 each. The experimental group was subjected to a daily enforced downhill bipedal running program by suspending their upper bodies so that they ran with their hind limbs on a treadmill for 1 hr/day for 8 weeks. The downward inclination was 20° and the speed was 17 m/min. The animals in the control group did not undergo any exercise. After 8 weeks, the Achilles tendons were harvested and subjected to histological and biomechanical analysis. Histological examination revealed tenocyte proliferation, change in tenocytes appearance, and collagen bundle disintegration in the running group. The biomechanical testing revealed significant decrease in stiffness (p?=?0.002) and ultimate tensile strength (p?=?0.016) in the running group than in the control group. Both the histological and biomechanical findings are suggestive of changes in the tendon of the running group that resembled the pathological changes of tendinosis in human. This new model of Achilles tendinosis in rat will be useful for studying the etiology and subsequent management strategies of this condition.     

Running from Paris to Beijing: biomechanical and physiological consequences

The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological and biomechanical changes occurring in a subject after running 8,500 km in 161 days (i.e. 52.8 km daily). Three weeks before, 3 weeks after (POST) and 5 months after (POST+5) running from Paris to Beijing, energy cost of running (Cr), knee flexor and extensor isokinetic strength and biomechanical parameters (using a treadmill dynamometer) at different velocities were assessed in an experienced ultra-runner. At POST, there was a tendency toward a ‘smoother’ running pattern, as shown by (a) a higher stride frequency and duty factor, and a reduced aerial time without a change in contact time, (b) a lower maximal vertical force and loading rate at impact and (c) a decrease in both potential and kinetic energy changes at each step. This was associated with a detrimental effect on Cr (+6.2%) and a loss of strength at all angular velocities for both knee flexors and extensors. At POST+5, the subject returned to his original running patterns at low but not at high speeds and maximal strength remained reduced at low angular velocities (i.e. at high levels of force). It is suggested that the running pattern changes observed in the present study were a strategy adopted by the subject to reduce the deleterious effects of long distance running. However, the running pattern changes could partly be linked to the decrease in maximal strength.     

Enforced bipedal downhill running induces Achilles tendinosis in rats

Enforced downhill running has been reported to induce tendinosis in the rat supraspinatus tendon but similar exercise failed to induce Achilles tendinosis in this animal. Due to the presence of acromial arch in the shoulder, accessing the supraspinatus tendon with physical modalities is difficult; thus this model may not be suitable for studying the treatment for tendinosis. To develop a rat model for Achilles tendinosis, we tested 14 mature Sprague-Dawley rats by dividing them into 2 groups of 7 each. The experimental group was subjected to a daily enforced downhill bipedal running program by suspending their upper bodies so that they ran with their hind limbs on a treadmill for 1 hr/day for 8 weeks. The downward inclination was 20 degrees and the speed was 17 m/min. The animals in the control group did not undergo any exercise. After 8 weeks, the Achilles tendons were harvested and subjected to histological and biomechanical analysis. Histological examination revealed tenocyte proliferation, change in tenocytes appearance, and collagen bundle disintegration in the running group. The biomechanical testing revealed significant decrease in stiffness (p = 0.002) and ultimate tensile strength (p = 0.016) in the running group than in the control group. Both the histological and biomechanical findings are suggestive of changes in the tendon of the running group that resembled the pathological changes of tendinosis in human. This new model of Achilles tendinosis in rat will be useful for studying the etiology and subsequent management strategies of this condition.     

Jogging improved performance of a behavioral branching task: implications for prefrontal activation

We studied the effect of habitual jogging on the performance of a frontal lobe functioning test. Fourteen subjects were divided into a jogging trained group (TG) or a jogging untrained group (NG). The TG jogged for 12 weeks, for 30 min, 2.6 times per week, while the NG did not. We administered a prefrontal branching task (BR) combining a Spatial Delayed-Response Test (DR) and a Go/No-Go Test (GNG). Each test alone and a Simple Reaction Time Test (SR) were given as controls. All tests were given three times at 6 week intervals over 12 weeks in both groups. In the TG, the tests were given two times after termination of the jogging. The maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) was measured in the TG during the 12 weeks. After 12 weeks, the correct performance rates in the BR task were more improved in the TG than in the NG. The control and reaction time tests were unchanged in both groups. The improved performance in the BR task in the TG decreased after stopping the jogging. The VO2max increased significantly during the 12 weeks of jogging in the TG. Thus, the habitual jogging improved performance in a prefrontal BR.     

Digit ratio (2D:4D) and sprinting speed in boys

Digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative correlate of prenatal testosterone, has been found to relate to performance in sport and athletics such that low 2D:4D (high prenatal testosterone) correlates with high performance. Speed in endurance races is strongly related to 2D:4D, and may be one factor that underlies the link between sport and 2D:4D, but nothing is known of the relationship between 2D:4D and sprinting speed. Here we show that running times over 50 m were positively correlated with 2D:4D in a sample of 241 boys (i.e. runners with low 2D:4D ran faster than runners with high 2D:4D). The relationship was also found for 50 m split times (at 20, 30, and 40 m) and was independent of age, BMI, and an index of maturity. However, associations between 2D:4D and sprinting speed were much weaker than those reported for endurance running. This suggests that 2D:4D is a relatively weak predictor of strength and a stronger predictor of efficiency in aerobic exercise. We discuss the effect sizes for relationships between 2D:4D and sport and target traits in general, and identify areas of strength and weakness in digit ratio research. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The strategies to regulate and to modulate the propulsive forces during gait initiation in lower limb amputees

We used the framework of motor program adaptability to examine how unilateral above-knee (AK) or below-knee (BK) amputee subjects organize the global and local biomechanical processes of generation of the propulsive forces during gait initiation to overcome the segmental and neuro-muscular asymmetry. The organization of the global biomechanical process refers to the kinematics behavior of the couple center of foot pressure (CoP) and center of mass (CoM); the organization of the local biomechanical process refers to the propulsive forces generated by the prosthetic or intact limb during the anticipatory postural adjustment phase and the step execution phase. Specifically, we examined: i) the strategy to regulate the progression velocity, i.e., to maintain it comparably when the leading limb changed from the prosthetic limb to the intact limb; and ii) the strategy to modulate the progression velocity, i.e., to increase it when gait was initiated with the prosthetic limb vs. intact limb. The kinematics of the CoM and CoP in the amputees showed the same global biomechanical organization that is typically observed in able-bodied subjects, i.e., the production of the forward disequilibrium torque was obtained by a backward shift of the CoP, followed by a forward acceleration of the CoM. However, gait initiation was achieved by using a different local strategy depending on which limb was used to initiate the step. For the regulation of the CoM progression velocity, when the gait was initiated with the intact limb, the slope of the progression velocity during the anticipatory postural adjustment phase (APA) was steeper and lasted longer, the step execution duration was shorter, and the variation of the CoM speed was lower. In other words, to regulate the speed of progression, the amputee subjects controlled the spatial and temporal parameters of the propulsive forces. In the modulation of the CoM progression velocity, when the gait was initiated with the intact limb, the amputees controlled only the intensity of the propulsive forces during both the APA and step execution phases. In contrast, when the gait was initiated with the prosthetic limb, the modulation resulted mainly from the propulsive forces generated during the step execution phase. These different strategies are discussed in terms of the subjects capacity to adapt the motor program for gait initiation to new constraints.An erratum to this article can be found at     

Endothelin-1 concentration in plasma is increased after jogging but decreased after cycling in healthy men

Endothelin-1 plays an important role as a paracrine factor in the regulation of regional blood flow. Plasma levels may represent the net result of spill-over from local stimulation/release and elimination of endothelin-1. In order to compare changes in the concentration of endothelin-1 in the plasma of subjects performing different types of sports exercises we measured immunoreactive endothelin-1 in healthy volunteers (n=20) performing in random order jogging on a treadmill and cycling on a bicycle ergometer, for 30 min each. Plasma immunoreactive endothelin-1 increased significantly after jogging (2.13±0.8 pg/ml versus 2.6±0.8 pg/ml, before and after exercise, respectively, P<0.03), whereas it decreased after cycling (2.45±0.76 pg/ml versus 2.25±0.9 pg/ml, before and after exercise, respectively, P<0.03). We suggest that microtraumatizing effects on the endothelial lining are more pronounced during jogging than during cycling, resulting in a greater increase in plasma endothelin-1, which is too high to be immediately eliminated by the lung despite exercise-induced enhanced pulmonary perfusion. In contrast, similarly enhanced lung perfusion together with a relatively lower stimulation of endothelin-1 compared with jogging, may explain the net decrease in plasma after cycling. Received: 16 July 2002 / Accepted: 21 October 2002 Correspondence to H. Ehrenreich     

不同地面对跑步下肢运动生物力学的影响

诸多因素会影响跑步运动损伤的发生,其中内在因素包括人体解剖学因素、受伤史、下肢运动生物力学和运动中的神经肌肉控制等,外在因素包括训练方法、跑步鞋、跑步路面等。跑步路面被认为是造成跑步运动损伤发生的重要潜在风险因素之一。总结不同地面对跑步下肢运动学、动力学、神经肌肉调控、运动损伤方面的影响,发现在不同地面跑步时,人体可能通过自身的神经肌肉调节功能进行运动学调整以获得动力学适应,调节下肢刚度以获得相似的冲击负荷。但是目前关于在不同路面上跑步的生物力学变化,多数研究只关注于运动学、动力学和神经肌肉调控中的某一方面,缺乏更进一步具体的三维运动生物力学数据,以及针对这种生物力学调整的具体神经肌肉调控机制。     

Intrinsic and extrinsic factors of turning preferences in humans

Turning behaviour in 107 adolescents was observed during walking and running under different temporal and biomechanical constraints. Participants ran and walked back and forth between two lines 9.5m apart in a neutral environment. All of the turns that the participants made to change direction between the lines were videotaped. A general preference for turning leftwards was observed with the percentage being higher in the unconstrained running condition when compared to the walking condition (71% versus 59%, respectively). This intrinsic preference was easily overruled when positional constraints on the starting position were imposed. Such positional constraints did not, however, suppress the intrinsic directional bias observed during running. It is concluded that turning preference in humans is the result of a complex interaction between intrinsic preferences and externally imposed task constraints.     

The effects of activity and thermal environment on creatinine clearance

Summary Rates of creatinine clearance (C_Cr) were measured in 3 healthy young men while standing at rest, walking at 5.6 km/hr, or jogging at 9.6 km/hr for 1 hr in environments set at water vapor tensions equal to about 10 mm Hg and dry bulb temperatures of 10, 25, or 40 ° C. The purpose was to study the differential effects of activity and thermal environment on glomerular filtration rate (GFR). C_Cr was always greater for walking than for standing in each environmental situation considered. For jogging, C_Cr decreased below standing values in the hot and temperate environments, but in the cold C_Cr for jogging did not differ from that for standing. Furthermore, during the jogging experiments C_Cr decreased in a linear fashion for each subject as heat stress (sweat rate) increased. We conclude that in comparison with rest the effects of mild and moderate exercise on GFR can be directionally different. With increasing heat stress, these differences in GFR can be accentuated.