Circumcision: what do we cut when we are cutting?

The term circumcision refers to partial or complete excision of the foreskin. There are three types of circumcision: ritual circumcision, performed for religious practice, as a rite of passage, usually during neonatal or transpubertal age; prophylactic circumcision, as preventive measure against future potential diseases; therapeutic circumcision, performed because of an evident pathology of the foreskin with clear medical indications. The investigation on the meaning of the ritual circumcision goes beyond the boundaries of the present paper; we are referring to anthropological literature to better understand its origin and reasons. Prophylactic circumcision spread among English-speaking peoples in the nineteenth century as a means against masturbation. In the twentieth century prevention against cancer, urinary infections, sexually transmitted diseases and, eventually, AIDS took over. The controversy about prophylactic circumcision is increasing nowadays in the United States whereas in the other English-speaking countries the procedure has almost disappeared and this represents what Edward Wallerstein calls "the uniquely American medical enigma". There are many interpretations for prophylactic circumcision and its lasting success in the United States. Each explanation probably hits the target only partially because this procedure takes its roots in the cultural history of the above mentioned country and in the relation with its puritan origins. Therapeutic circumcision is performed because of a clear and evident pathology of the prepuce. The embryological development of the prepuce is completed at the sixteenth week of pregnancy. At birth, this tissue covers the glans without an apparent plane of cleavage and should be defined as 'non-retractile prepuce' instead of 'phymosis'. The prepuce in its free development becomes completely retractile at puberty. These evolutionary concepts about prepuce have been described by Douglas Gairdner in 1948 and Jacob Oster in 1968. The prepuce is an integrant part of the male genital system. It has three functions: protective, immunological and sexual. The extremely complex innervation of the prepuce explains its sensibility and makes it an extraordinary erogenous zone. In view of these features, the excision of the prepuce necessarily interferes with the patient's sexual function, and possibly involves serious psychological concerns. Circumcision represents a minor surgical procedure but, like any other surgical techniques, can result in complications: A) operative: hemorrhage, removal of too much skin from the penile shaft infection; B) post-operative: sepsis, urethrocutaneous fistula, gangrene of the penis; C) long-term complications: meatal stenosis, skin bridge between the glans and the penile shaft. Sometimes complications are severe and can cause death of the patient, especially during ritual circumcision. Given these aspects, a well informed consent is mandatory both in terms of potential complications linked to surgical procedures, and in terms of sexual and psychological consequences.     

Endoscopic stenting-Where are we now and where can we go？

Self expanding metal stents （SEMS） play an important role in the management of malignant obstructing lesions in the gastrointestinal tract. Traditionally, they have been used for palliation in malignant gastric outlet and colonic obstruction and esophageal malignancy. The development of the polyflex stent, which is a removable self expanding plastic stent, allows temporary stent insertion for benign esophageal disease and possibly for patients undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy prior to esophagectomy. Potential complications of SEMS insertion include perforation, tumour overgrowth or ingrowth, and stent migration. Newer stents are being developed with the aim of increasing technical and clinical success rates, while reducing complication rates. Other areas of development include biodegradable stents for benign disease and radioactive or drug-eluting stents for malignant disease. It is hoped that, in the future, newer stents will improve our management of these difficult conditions and, possibly, provide prognostic as well as symptomatic benefit in the setting of malignant obstruction.     

Malaria vaccines: where are we and where are we going?

Malaria is still killing over one million people each year and its incidence is increasing. The need for an effective vaccine is greater than ever. A major difficulty with vaccine research is that the malaria parasite presents thousands of antigens to the human immune system that vary throughout its life cycle. Identifying those that may prove to be vaccine targets is complicated and time consuming. Most vaccines are targeted at individual stages of the malaria life cycle, although it is likely that only the development of a multistage vaccine will offer complete protection to both visitors to, and residents of, a malaria-endemic area. With the development of a successful vaccine other issues such as cost, distribution, education, and compliance will have to be addressed. This review describes some of the current vaccine candidates for immunising against malaria.     

Preventing catheter-related bacteriuria: should we? Can we? How?

Up to 25% of hospitalized patients undergo urinary catheterization, and about 5% develop bacteriuria each day of catheterization. Catheter-related bacteriuria is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. We performed an evidence-based synthesis of the literature on preventing catheter-associated urinary tract infections (UTIs) to develop recommendations for clinicians. Catheterization should be avoided when not required and when needed, should be terminated as soon as possible. Use of suprapubic and condom catheters may be associated with a lower risk of UTI than use of urethral catheters. Aseptic catheter insertion and a properly maintained closed drainage system are crucial to reducing the risk of bacteriuria. Instillation of antimicrobial agents into the bladder or urinary drainage bag and rigorous meatal cleansing seem to be of little benefit. Use of urinary catheters coated with silver alloy may reduce the risk of UTI. Systemic antimicrobial drug therapy seems to prevent UTIs, but primarily for patients catheterized for 3 to 14 days. Antibiotic drug prophylaxis is especially valuable in patients undergoing transurethral resection of the prostate or renal transplantation. Using these methods, urinary catheter-associated UTI can often be prevented for weeks, but not longer terms.