Feasibility and effects of patient-cooperative robot-aided gait training applied in a 4-week pilot trial

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Functional training is becoming the state-of-the-art therapy approach for rehabilitation of individuals after stroke and spinal cord injury. Robot-aided treadmill training reduces personnel effort, especially when treating severely affected patients. Improving rehabilitation robots towards more patient-cooperative behavior may further increase the effects of robot-aided training. This pilot study aims at investigating the feasibility of applying patient-cooperative robot-aided gait rehabilitation to stroke and incomplete spinal cord injury during a therapy period of four weeks. Short-term effects within one training session as well as the effects of the training on walking function are evaluated. METHODS: Two individuals with chronic incomplete spinal cord injury and two with chronic stroke trained with the Lokomat gait rehabilitation robot which was operated in a new, patient-cooperative mode for a period of four weeks with four training sessions of 45 min per week. At baseline, after two and after four weeks, walking function was assessed with the ten meter walking test. Additionally, muscle activity of the major leg muscles, heart rate and the Borg scale were measured under different walking conditions including a non-cooperative position control mode to investigate the short-term effects of patient-cooperative versus non-cooperative robot-aided gait training. RESULTS: Patient-cooperative robot-aided gait training was tolerated well by all subjects and performed without difficulties. The subjects trained more actively and with more physiological muscle activity than in a non-cooperative position-control mode. One subject showed a significant and relevant increase of gait speed after the therapy, the three remaining subjects did not show significant changes. CONCLUSIONS: Patient-cooperative robot-aided gait training is feasible in clinical practice and overcomes the main points of criticism against robot-aided gait training: It enables patients to train in an active, variable and more natural way. The limited number of subjects in this pilot trial does not permit valid conclusions on the effect of patient-cooperative robot-aided gait training on walking function. A large, possibly multi-center randomized controlled clinical trial is required to shed more light on this question.     

Patient-cooperative control increases active participation of individuals with SCI during robot-aided gait training

Background  

Manual body weight supported treadmill training and robot-aided treadmill training are frequently used techniques for the gait rehabilitation of individuals after stroke and spinal cord injury. Current evidence suggests that robot-aided gait training may be improved by making robotic behavior more patient-cooperative. In this study, we have investigated the immediate effects of patient-cooperative versus non-cooperative robot-aided gait training on individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury (iSCI).     

Comparison of two techniques of robot-aided upper limb exercise training after stroke

OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether incorporating progressive resistive training into robot-aided exercise training provides incremental benefits over active-assisted robot-aided exercise for the upper limb after stroke. DESIGN: A total of 47 individuals at least 1 yr poststroke were enrolled in this 6-wk training protocol. Paretic upper limb motor abilities were evaluated using clinical measures and a robot-based assessment to determine eligibility for robot-aided progressive resistive training at study entry. Subjects capable of participating in resistance training were randomized to receive either active-assisted robot-aided exercises or robot-aided progressive resistance training. Subjects who were incapable of participating in resistance training underwent active-assisted robotic therapy and were again screened for eligibility after 3 wks of robotic therapy. Those subjects capable of participating in resistance training at 3 wks were then randomized to receive either robot-aided resistance training or to continue with robot-aided active-assisted training. RESULTS: One subject withdrew due to unrelated medical issues, and data for the remaining 46 subjects were analyzed. Subjects in all groups showed improvement in measures of motor control (mean increase in Fugl-Meyer of 3.3; 95% confidence interval, 2.2-4.4) and maximal force (mean increase in maximal force of 3.5 N, P = 0.027) over the course of robot-aided exercise training. No differences in outcome measures were observed between the resistance training groups and the matched active-assisted training groups. Subjects' ability to perform the robotic task at the time of group assignment predicted the magnitude of the gain in motor control. CONCLUSION: The incorporation of robot-aided progressive resistance exercises into a program of robot-aided exercise did not favorably or negatively affect the gains in motor control or strength associated with this training, though interpretation of these results is limited by sample size. Individuals with better motor control at baseline experienced greater increases in motor control with robotic training.     

Active robotic training improves locomotor function in a stroke survivor

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Clinical outcomes after robotic training are often not superior to conventional therapy. One key factor responsible for this is the use of control strategies that provide substantial guidance. This strategy not only leads to a reduction in volitional physical effort, but also interferes with motor relearning. METHODS: We tested the feasibility of a novel training approach (active robotic training) using a powered gait orthosis (Lokomat) in mitigating post-stroke gait impairments of a 52-year-old male stroke survivor. This gait training paradigm combined patient-cooperative robot-aided walking with a target-tracking task. The training lasted for 4-weeks (12 visits, 3 [MULTIPLICATION SIGN] per week). The subject's neuromotor performance and recovery were evaluated using biomechanical, neuromuscular and clinical measures recorded at various time-points (pre-training, post-training, and 6-weeks after training). RESULTS: Active robotic training resulted in considerable increase in target-tracking accuracy and reduction in the kinematic variability of ankle trajectory during robot-aided treadmill walking. These improvements also transferred to overground walking as characterized by larger propulsive forces and more symmetric ground reaction forces (GRFs). Training also resulted in improvements in muscle coordination, which resembled patterns observed in healthy controls. These changes were accompanied by a reduction in motor cortical excitability (MCE) of the vastus medialis, medial hamstrings, and gluteus medius muscles during treadmill walking. Importantly, active robotic training resulted in substantial improvements in several standard clinical and functional parameters. These improvements persisted during the follow-up evaluation at 6 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that active robotic training appears to be a promising way of facilitating gait and physical function in moderately impaired stroke survivors.     

Treadmill training of paraplegic patients using a robotic orthosis

Recent studies have confirmed that regular treadmill training can improve walking capabilities in incomplete spinal cord-injured subjects. At the beginning of this training the leg movements of the patients have to be assisted by physiotherapists during gait on the moving treadmill. The physical capabilities and the individual experience of the therapists usually limit this training. A driven gait orthosis (DGO) has been developed that can move the legs of a patient in a physiological way on the moving treadmill. The orthosis is adjustable in size so different patients can use it. Actuators at the knee and hip joints are controlled by a position controller. With the DGO the legs of patients with different degrees of paresis and spasticity could be trained for more than half an hour, and physiological gait patterns were obtained.     

Training and evaluation of respiratory therapists in emergency intubation.

Endotracheal intubation in emergency situations is a recognized function of respiratory therapists, as defined by the American Association for Respiratory Therapy in 1973. A training program based in the operating room, using one-on-one instruction, was the basis for a training program designed to meet JCAH standards for endotracheal intubation. To evaluate the success of our training and our system for attempting intubations, we recorded the results of 50 consecutive intubation attempts by our therapists. All 50 patients were eventually intubated, with 35 patients intubated on the first attempt. The average number of attempts per patient was 1.48. While 39 patients were intubated within one minute, 11 required more than one minute. In five patients, physicians had attempted intubation prior to a therapist's arrival; those intubations took eleven times longer than those that were attempted by therapists only. The average time for intubations attempted solely by therapists was 54 seconds.     

A mechanized gait trainer for restoration of gait

The newly developed gait trainer allows wheel-chair-bound subjects the repetitive practice of a gait-like movement without overstressing therapists. The device simulates the phases of gait, supports the subjects according to their abilities, and controls the center of mass (CoM) in the vertical and horizontal directions. The patterns of sagittal lower limb joint kinematics and of muscle activation for a normal subject were similar when using the mechanized trainer and when walking on a treadmill. A non-ambulatory hemiparetic subject required little help from one therapist on the gait trainer, while two therapists were required to support treadmill walking. Gait movements on the trainer were highly symmetrical, impact free, and less spastic. The vertical displacement of the CoM was bi-phasic instead of mono-phasic during each gait cycle on the new device. Two cases of non-ambulatory patients, who regained their walking ability after 4 weeks of daily training on the gait trainer, are reported.     

机器人模式设计对脊髓损伤患者步态的影响

背景：治疗师帮助的减重运动平板训练方法是一种效果较好的步态训练方法,但因其对治疗师体力消耗较大,且人员需要较多,临床应用受到一定限制。机器人帮助的减重运动平板训练受到广泛关注。目的：总结机器人在脊髓损伤患者步态康复中的作用及其对下肢运动及肌肉活动模式的影响。方法：由第一作者检索PubMed数据库（http：//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed）1995-01/2010-12涉及机器人、Lokomat、减重运动平板训练及脊髓损伤步态康复内容的文献,英文关键词为＂spinal cord injury, gait, walking, locomotor, locomotion,rehabilitation,robot,robotic,Lokomat＂,排除陈旧性、重复性文献,保留30篇文献归纳总结。结果与结论：虽然到时目前为止还没有证据证明机器人运动训练方法优越于其他方法,但其在脊髓损伤康复领域的应用也有明显的优势。机器人设备对下肢运动的被动引导及固定步行模式的重复训练不利于患者最大自主肌力的发挥及步行循环周期之间的变动,不能做到治疗师那样敏感地感受患者的运动表现。治疗师只有全面了解机器人设备并根据患者的运动能力不断调整训练参数,以致使患者在精确控制环境下最大限度地发挥自主运动能力,才能获得最佳的运动训练效果。     

机器人模式设计对脊髓损伤患者步态的影响

背景:治疗师帮助的减重运动平板训练方法是一种效果较好的步态训练方法,但因其对治疗师体力消耗较大,且人员需要较多,临床应用受到一定限制.机器人帮助的减重运动平板训练受到广泛关注.目的:总结机器人在脊髓损伤患者步态康复中的作用及其对下肢运动及肌肉活动模式的影响.方法:由第一作者检索PubMed数据库(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed)1995-01/2010-12涉及机器人、Lokomat、减重运动平板训练及脊髓损伤步态康复内容的文献,英文关键词为“spinal cord injury,gait,walking,locomotor,locomotion,rehabilitation,robot,robotic,Lokomat ",排除陈旧性、重复性文献,保留30篇文献归纳总结.结果与结论:虽然到时目前为止还没有证据证明机器人运动训练方法优越于其他方法,但其在脊髓损伤康复领域的应用也有明显的优势.机器人设备对下肢运动的被动引导及固定步行模式的重复训练不利于患者最大自主肌力的发挥及步行循环周期之间的变动,不能做到治疗师那样敏感地感受患者的运动表现.治疗师只有全面了解机器人设备并根据患者的运动能力不断调整训练参数,以致使患者在精确控制环境下最大限度地发挥自主运动能力,才能获得最佳的运动训练效果.     

The status of gait assessment among physiotherapists in the United Kingdom

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate how physiotherapists are trained in and use clinically orientated gait assessment tools and instrumented gait analysis, and to identify if a need exists for a standardized methodology. DESIGN: Survey. SETTING: UK National Health Service. PARTICIPANTS: Physiotherapists working with a variety of patient groups in 210 randomly selected Health Care Trusts. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Amount of gait assessment training, frequency of gait laboratory use, types and frequency of standardized gait assessment tools used, and expressed need for a gait assessment tool in clinical practice. RESULTS: A total of 1826 (43.5%) physiotherapists responded. Management of abnormal gait constituted a major aspect of physiotherapy practice; yet, there was no systematic use of standardized gait assessment tools. Gait video images were typically collected and analyzed without the use of standardized protocols. Only 23.1% of all respondents had a patient assessed in a gait laboratory. Clinicians indicated that they need training in gait assessment (66.4%) and desire guidance at a national level. Exactly 91.8% of physiotherapists requested a new gait assessment tool that can be used easily and quickly within a busy schedule without compromising reliability and validity. CONCLUSIONS: Gait assessment plays a pivotal role for physiotherapists managing gait problems. The challenge for developers of gait assessment tools is to find a balance between the practicalities of use and scientific merit.     

综合康复治疗对脑卒中急性期运动功能的疗效观察

目的：观察不同步行训练方法对脑卒中患者步行能力的疗效。方法：脑卒中患者60例,随机分为传统步行训练组（CGT组）、减重步行训练组（BWSTT组）和减重步行机器人训练组（GRT组）各20例。3组均行常规康复训练并行相应的步行训练。训练前后分别应用Berg平衡量表（BBS）、10米步行能力测试（10mWT）、足印法步态分析（GAF）、3min步行测试（3minWT）评估患者平衡及步行能力。结果：治疗8周后,3组BBS评分、步速、步长比均较治疗前明显提高,生理消耗指数（PCI）评分均较治疗前明显降低（均P〈0．05）;GRT组和BWSTT组的步速、步长比、PCI评分均明显优于CGT组（均P〈0．05）。治疗期间,GRT组所需的人工总量明显低于BWSTT组和CGT组（均P〈0．05）。结论：减重机器人步行训练能提高脑卒中患者的平衡和步行能力,并且节省人工。     

Comparison of amounts and types of practice during rehabilitation for traumatic brain injury and stroke

Patients with acquired neurological deficits may capitalize on cortical reorganization to recover functional skills that have been lost. Research in neuroplasticity proposes that a high number of repetitions may lead to cortical reorganization. The purposes of this study were to quantify the number and type of activities performed by patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke in physical and occupational therapy sessions to determine whether (1) the number of repetitions approaches the numbers in neuroplasticity research, (2) there were differences based on patient diagnosis, and (3) patient or therapist characteristics affected the type or amount of activities performed. Forty-eight patient and forty provider subjects participated. One hundred seven therapy sessions were observed. Data from therapy sessions were counted and categorized. Neither patient group approached the total number of repetitions neuroplasticity research suggests may be required for neuroplastic change. Repetitions per session did not differ between groups. Subjects with TBI performed more repetitions per minute in three categories (total upper-limb repetitions, gait steps, and transfers) than subjects with stroke. Therapists with <1 year or >15 years of neurological therapy experience instructed patients in fewer functional repetitions per minute than did therapists with 5 to 15 years of experience.     

Supported treadmill ambulation training after spinal cord injury: a pilot study

OBJECTIVES: To conduct a pilot study of weight-supported ambulation training after incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI), and to assess its safety. DESIGN: Quasiexperimental, repeated measures, single group. SETTING: Veterans Affairs medical center. PATIENTS: Three subjects with incomplete, chronic, thoracic SCIs; 2 classified as D on the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) impairment scale and 1 as ASIA impairment scale C. INTERVENTION: Subjects participated in 12 weeks of training assisted by 2 physical therapists. The training consisted of walking on a treadmill while supported by a harness and a pneumatic suspension device. Support started at 40% of body weight and a treadmill speed of.16kmph, and progressed by reducing support and increasing treadmill speed and continuous treadmill walking time up to 20 minutes. Training was conducted for 1 hour per day, 5 days per week for 3 months. Treadmill walking occurred for 20 minutes during the sessions. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Gait function (speed, endurance, walking status, use of assistive device and orthotics); oxygen costs of walking; brain motor control assessment; self-report indices; ASIA classification; muscle function test; and safety. RESULTS: All 3 subjects increased gait speed (.118m/s initially to.318m/s after training 12wk), and gait endurance (20.3m/5min initially to 63.5m/5min). The oxygen costs decreased from 1.96 to 1.33mL x kg(-1) x m(-1) after 12 weeks of training. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study suggests that supported treadmill ambulation training can improve gait for individuals with incomplete SCIs by using objective gait measures. The self-report indices used have promise as patient-centered outcome measures of this new form of gait training. A larger, controlled study of this technique is warranted.     

Televideo assessment using Functional Reach Test and European Stroke Scale

This study explored the equivalence of physical function assessment by physical therapists (PTs) during face-to-face and remote administration of the European Stroke Scale (ESS) and the Functional Reach Test (FRT) to 26 subjects with a history of stroke. Patients were randomized to remote or face-to-face administration groups. Each patient was simultaneously rated by both the face-to-face and remote PTs. The PTs were blinded to each other's results. Equivalence was set at the 95% limits of agreement. When the face-to-face PT directed the patient, the two PTs reported equivalent values in more than 90% of the patients for the FRT and for all ESS components, with the exception of gait (83%) and maintaining leg position (85%). When the remote PT directed the patient, the two PTs reported equivalent values in more than 90% of the patients for the FRT and more than 83% for all ESS components. Televideo assessment of function by PTs is substantially equivalent to a face-to-face encounter.     

Effect of robotic locomotor training in an individual with Parkinson's disease: a case report

Purpose.?The purpose was to test the effect of robot-assisted gait therapy with the Lokomat system in one representative individual with Parkinson's disease (PD).

Methods.?The patient was a 67-year-old female with more than an 8-year history of PD. The manifestations of the disease included depressive mood with lack of motivation, moderate bradykinesia, rigidity and resting tremor, both involving more the right side of the body, slow and shuffling gait with episodes of freezing and risk of falling. The patient underwent six sessions of robot-assisted gait training. The practice included treadmill walking at variable speed for 25–40?min with a partial body weight support and assistance from the Lokomat orthosis.

Results.?After the therapy, the patient increased the gait speed, stride length and foot clearance during over ground walking. She reduced the time required to complete a 180° turn and the latency of gait initiation. Improvements were observed in some items of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale including motivation, bradykinesia, rigidity, freezing, leg agility, gait and posture.

Conclusions.?Although the results supported the feasibility of using robot-assisted gait therapy in the rehabilitation an individual with PD, further studies are needed to assess a potential advantage of the Lokomat system over conventional locomotor training for this population.     

Accuracy and reliability of observational gait analysis data: judgments of push-off in gait after stroke

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Physical therapists routinely observe gait in clinical practice. The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy and reliability of observational assessments of push-off in gait after stroke. SUBJECTS: Eighteen physical therapists and 11 subjects with hemiplegia following a stroke participated in the study. METHODS: Measurements of ankle power generation were obtained from subjects following stroke using a gait analysis system. Concurrent videotaped gait performances were observed by the physical therapists on 2 occasions. Ankle power generation at push-off was scored as either normal or abnormal using two 11-point rating scales. These observational ratings were correlated with the measurements of peak ankle power generation. RESULTS: A high correlation was obtained between the observational ratings and the measurements of ankle power generation (mean Pearson r=.84). Interobserver reliability was moderately high (mean intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC (2,1)]=.76). Intraobserver reliability also was high, with a mean ICC (2,1) of.89 obtained. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Physical therapists were able to make accurate and reliable judgments of push-off in videotaped gait of subjects following stroke using observational assessment. Further research is indicated to explore the accuracy and reliability of data obtained with observational gait analysis as it occurs in clinical practice.     

The effect of treadmill training on the ambulation of stroke survivors in the early stages of rehabilitation: a randomized study

The objective of this study was to compare the effects of conventional over-ground gait training with treadmill training on the restoration of gait in people with hemiparesis following a stroke. Twenty-five individuals in the early stages of rehabilitation were alternately assigned to one of two treatment groups. In addition to conventional physical therapy, the experimental group participated in 15 treadmill-training sessions in which a handrail was used for external support. The control group received the same number of equal length sessions of over-ground ambulation. Treatment effects were established by pre- and posttreatment assessment of: 1) functional walking ability, 2) walking speed, 3) stride length, 4) temporal characteristics of gait, and 5) electromyographic activity of calf muscles. Normal values were obtained from eight healthy individuals of approximately the same age as the stroke survivors. The study demonstrates that individuals following a stroke are well able to tolerate treadmill training in the early stage of their rehabilitation process without the use of a weight support apparatus. Furthermore, the findings suggest that treadmill training may be more effective than conventional gait training for improving some gait parameters such as functional ambulation, stride length, percentage of paretic single stance period, and gastrocnemius muscular activity.     

Systematic review of the effect of robot-aided therapy on recovery of the hemiparetic arm after stroke

A limited number of clinical studies have examined the effect of poststroke rehabilitation with robotic devices on hemiparetic arm function. We systematically reviewed the literature to assess the effect of robot-aided therapy on stroke patients' upper-limb motor control and functional abilities. Eight clinical trials were identified and reviewed. For four of these studies, we also pooled short-term mean changes in Fugl-Meyer scores before and after robot-aided therapy. We found that robot-aided therapy of the proximal upper limb improves short- and long-term motor control of the paretic shoulder and elbow in subacute and chronic patients; however, we found no consistent influence on functional abilities. In addition, robot-aided therapy appears to improve motor control more than conventional therapy.     

Inter- and intraobserver repeatability of the Salford Gait Tool: an observation-based clinical gait assessment tool

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the inter- and intraobserver repeatability of the Salford Gait Tool (SF-GT), a new observation-based gait assessment tool for evaluating sagittal plane cerebral palsy (CP) gait. DESIGN: Masked comparative evaluation. SETTING: University in the United Kingdom. PARTICIPANTS: A convenience sample of 23 pediatric physical therapists with varying degrees of clinical experience recruited from the Greater Manchester area. INTERVENTION: Participants viewed videotapes of the sagittal plane gait of 13 children and used the SF-GT to analyze their 13 different gait styles on 2 occasions. Eleven children had hemiplegic, diplegic, or quadriplegic CP and 2 were neurologically intact. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Inter- and intraobserver repeatability of hip, knee, and ankle joint positions at 6 different phases of the gait cycle. RESULTS: The SF-GT demonstrated good interobserver (77%) and intraobserver (75%) repeatability. CONCLUSIONS: We have established that the SF-GT is a repeatable clinical assessment tool with which to guide the diagnosis, treatment planning, and evaluation of interventions by pediatric physical therapists of sagittal plane gait deviations in CP.