Food habits in Aborigines and persons of European descent of southeastern Australia

Abstract: As part of a study of risk factors for glucose intolerance and heart disease in Australian Aborigines and persons of European descent, we elicited the prevalence of food habits that may be associated with high fat and high salt intakes. Interview data were gathered from population-based samples in country towns and visitors to an Aboriginal health service in a state capital city, all in southeastern Australia. Among persons aged 13 years and over, the frequency of eating takeaway food as a meal was categorised as monthly or less, weekly, more than once per week, and daily or more often. The prevalence of eating such meals was higher among city Aborigines than those living in the country town; the prevalence was lowest among the country-town Europeans (χ² = 184, 6 df, P < 0.001). The prevalence of adding salt during cooking and food consumption was higher among Aborigines compared with Europeans. Among country-town Aboriginal males aged 35 or under, 25 of 40 (63 per cent) added salt to cooked food ‘most of the time’, compared with 66 of 185 (36 per cent) Europeans (χ² = 9.8, P = 0.002). Among Aboriginal females, 47 of 64 (64 per cent) were in the highest category of salt use, compared with 35 of 190 (18 per cent) of Europeans (χ² = 66.3, P < 0.001). About one-third of country-town Aboriginal males used dripping to fry food, but in the other ethnicity, gender and location groups, vegetable oil was the most frequent choice. The main differences in food habits were associated with ethnicity, rather than location. It remains critical that approaches to dietary modification be specific to ethnic groups.     

Hypertension in Israeli adolescents: prevalence according to weight, sex and parental origin.

We studied the prevalence of hypertension in 57,499 male and 35,803 female Israeli military recruits and its relation with sex, weight, and parents' ethnic origin. The overall prevalence of systolic hypertension (greater than 140 mmHg) was 1.75 per cent for males and 0.32 per cent for females. The prevalence of diastolic hypertension (greater than 90 mmHg) was 0.41 per cent for males and 0.06 per cent for females. For males, the prevalence of systolic and diastolic hypertension increased with weight, exponentially. Males of Ashkenazi origin had a significantly higher prevalence of hypertension (systolic 2.52 per cent, diastolic 0.55 per cent) compared with those of Sephardi origin (systolic 1.12 per cent, diastolic 0.3 per cent). The prevalence of adolescents with systolic or diastolic blood pressure greater than the mean +2SD of each weight group ranged between 1.5-2.3 per cent.     

Smoking in Aborigines and persons of European descent in southeastern Australia: prevalence and associations with food habits,body fat distribution and other cardiovascular risk factors

Abstract: As part of a population-base study of risk factors for heart disease, we aimed to establish the prevalence of smoking and to indentify associations between smoking and other risk factors in Australian Aborigines (n = 306) and persons of European descent (n = 553) in two country towns. Smoking prevalence was first analysed as a dichotomy (current smokers compared with nonsmokers), and according to three levels of exposure (< 10, 10—20 and > 20 cigarettes per day), and two levels of nonexposure (never and former smoker). Other behavioural, biochemical and physical variables were included in multivariable analyses. Of the Aborigines, 64.4 per cent (95 per cent confidence interval (CI) 59.0 per cent to 69.8 per cent) were current cigarette smokers, compared with 22.8 per cent of non-Aborigines (CI 19.3 per cent to 26.3 per cent). For persons aged 13 to 54 years, using the five categories of exposure, smoking in Aborigines again far exceeded that in non-Aborigines in all age groups (for males χ² = 72.8, for females χ² = 94.6, 4 df, P = < 0.0001 for both sexes). In non-Aboriginal females, the highest prevalence was in the youngest group (56 per cent of those aged 13 to 17 years). Food habit was associated with smoking. Subjects who ate meat without trimming the fat were more likely to smoke. In Australian country towns, Aborigines and all young women need smoking cessation programs. The nutritional status of smokers requires further study.     

Primary hepatocellular carcinoma in Aboriginal Australians

Abstract: We identified incident cases of primary hepatocellular carcinoma (PHC) in the Northern Territory from 1980 to 1989: there were 18 Aboriginal and six non-Aboriginal cases, yielding incidence rates of 5.2 per 100 000 (Aboriginal) and 0.5 per 100 000 (non-Aboriginal) with a relative risk of 10.4 (95 per cent confidence interval (CI) 4.0 to 26.6). The carcinoma was more frequent in males (2.3 per 100 000) than in females (0.7 per 100 000), with a relative risk of 3.4 (CI 1.3 to 9.3). Incidence increased with age; the trend was statistically significant in Aborigines (X²₁, = 4.7, P < 0.05) but not in non-Aborigines (X²₁ = 3.4, P > 0.05). Hepatitis B virus (HBV) serology was available for 11 Aboriginal and four non-Aboriginal cases; seven of the Aboriginal cases and two of the non-Aboriginal cases were positive for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). The prevalence of HBsAg in Aboriginal patients with the carcinoma (63.6 per cent) was much higher than that (13.1 per cent) in Aborigines surveyed from communities in the Northern Territory (X²₁ = 21.7, P < 0.001). Our results show that the age-specific incidence of PHC in Aborigines in the Northern Territory (30.9 for ages 40 and over) is comparable to that in high-incidence countries such as China (36.9 for ages 40 and over), and that hepatitis B is of major aetiological importance in the Aboriginal population. This underlines the importance of universal immunisation for prevention of HBV infection and for long-term prevention of PHC.     

Respiratory disease amongst Aborigines in the Pilbara

Aboriginal communities have a high prevalence of upper and lower respiratory tract disease. One thousand two hundred and eighty seven West Australian Aborigines and 265 non-Aborigines were examined. Twenty nine per cent of Aborigines had lower respiratory tract abnormalities. Amongst 635 Aboriginal children less than 15 years of age, 23% had lower respiratory tract signs--four times the prevalence in 174 non-Aborigines. Twenty six per cent of Aborigines under 10 years of age had signs of otitis media, compared to 3% amongst non-Aborigines. Two hundred and thirty eight (53%) of Aboriginal children less than 10 years of age had nasal discharge, compared to 1.6% of the non-Aboriginal children.     

Effect of gestational age misclassification on the pattern of low birthweight in Aborigines

Abstract: Are most births of Aboriginal babies with low birthweight preterm or full term? There is no consensus because of the difficulty in obtaining valid measurements of gestational age. In Queensland, between 1988 and 1992, there were 519 births of Aboriginal babies with low birthweight in excess of the number expected if Aborigines had the same risk of low birthweight as whites. Most of these were preterm (males 76 per cent, females 65 per cent). Sensitivity analyses were used to investigate whether this result was robust to gestational age misclassification. Implausibly large misclassification proportions were required to make preterm low birthweight an insignificant contributor to the low birthweight excess in Aborigines. Therefore, efforts to reduce the number of preterm births should be given high priority. Unfortunately, significant reductions in the number of preterm births will not be achieved by reducing the prevalence of traditional risk factors for full–term low birthweight (for example, maternal smoking, teenage pregnancy). More work is needed to identify potentially modifiable risk factors for preterm birth.     

Comparison of cardiovascular risk factors in obese blacks and whites

Blacks are known to have higher blood pressure levels, a higher prevalence of hypertension, and higher body weights than whites. However, the interrelationships of these and other cardiac risk factors have not been analyzed in an obese population. We compared blood pressure (BP) and lipid levels in 174 obese blacks and 939 obese white patients who were entering a weight loss program; we also assessed the effects of weight loss on these factors. Prevalence of treated hypertension was similar in blacks and whites (28% vs. 25%, respectively). In patients not taking BP medication, black women weighed more (108 kg) than white women (102 kg) and black and white males' weights were similar (135 kg vs. 131 kg). Systolic and diastolic BP were similar in black and white women; black males had similar SBP but a significantly lower DBP than white males (83 mmHg vs. 89 mmHg, respectively). Lipid levels were similar in black and white women except black women had lower triglycerides (1.30 mmol/L) than white women (1.58 mmol/L, p < 0.05); and black males compared to white males had significantly lower total cholesterol (4.76 mmol/L vs. 5.56 mmol/L), LDL-cholesterol (3.15 mmol/L vs. 3.52 mmol/L) and triglycerides (1.31 mmol/L vs. 2.17 mmol/L, p < 0.05). Adult-onset obesity adversely affected a number of cardiovascular risk factors in whites, but not in blacks. Blacks lost significantly less weight (-13 kg) than whites (-19 kg). However, controlling for the difference in weight loss, blacks sustained comparable improvement in lipids and blood pressure, except for TC/HDL-C (whites improved significantly more, -0.36 kg/m2, than blacks, 0.03 kg/m2). Thus, the impact of obesity on cardiovascular risk factors seems ameliorated in blacks compared to whites.     

Prevalence of cardiovascular disease risk factors in blacks and whites: the Minnesota Heart Survey.

Two cross-sectional surveys were conducted in 1985 and 1986 to measure the prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors in Blacks and Whites. A home interview was followed by a survey center visit. Participation rates were 78 per cent and 90 per cent for the home interview and 65 per cent and 68 per cent for the survey center visit. Adjusted for age and education, systolic and diastolic blood pressure was 3 to 4 mmHg higher in Blacks. Hypertension was more prevalent in Blacks than Whites (44 per cent vs 28 per cent); serum total cholesterol was approximately 0.4 mmol/l lower in Black than White men and 0.08 mmol/l lower in Black than White women. Among men, more Blacks than Whites were current cigarette smokers (44 per cent vs 30 per cent); however, White smokers smoked more cigarettes per day (26 vs 17). Similar differences were noted for women, although the prevalence and quantity of cigarette consumption was less than men. The excess prevalence of these CHD risk factors in Blacks, especially among women, may explain their elevated CHD and stroke mortality rates in the Twin Cities.     

TRENDS IN CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTORS IN AUSTRALIA, 1966–1983: EVIDENCE FROM PREVALENCE SURVEYS

A review of published data from cardiovascular risk factor surveys among adults in Australia from 1966 to 1983 suggests that: — prevalence of cigarette smoking decreased significantly by up to 1.4 per cent per year among men but increased among younger women; — serum cholesterol mean levels decreased significantly by 0.03 - 0.04 mmol/1 per year among men and 0.04 - 0.07 mmol/1 per year among women; — systolic blood pressure mean levels decreased significantly by 0.05 - 0.3 mmHg per year among men and 0.2 - 0.6 mmHg per year among women; — diastolic blood pressure showed no significant or consistent changes among men but some decrease among women. During the same period death rates from ischaemic heart disease (IHD) declined by over 40 per cent. The changes in risk factor levels are estimated to account for about half of the decline in IHD mortality for men and about three quarters of the decline for women.     

The health status of an ambulance service

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the current healthstatus of male ambulance personnel based in Belfast, takingthe opportunity to compare results with those from a comparablelocal survey of the general population. Risk factors for coronaryheart disease were assessed. Ninety-three men were studied.Blood pressure values were significantly higher (P<0.05)in the present study than in a comparable local survey of thegeneral population, with 23 per cent of systolic values beingover 140 mmHg and 27 per cent of diastolic readings being over90 mmHg. The incidence of self-reported smoking was also higherin the ambulance service (36 per cent) compared with the localpopulation (31 per cent). Computation of body mass indices forambulancemen showed that 52 per cent of personnel fell outsidethe acceptable range of 20–25 kg/m² with 10 per cent beinggreater than 30 kg/m², recognized as the threshold of clinicalobesity. With regard to serum cholesterol, 52 per cent of personnelexceeded the desirable threshold of 5.2 mmol/l, while 18 percent were above 6.4 mmol/l. In addition, the high density lipoproteinfraction was significantly lower (P<0.05) in the ambulancemencompared with the general population (mean±SEM: 1.10±0.3vs. 1.18±0.01, respectively). Although 54 per cent ofthe sample claimed to be physically active, only 35 per centreportedly took sufficient exercise to be of benefit to theirhealth. Cardiorespiratory fitness was significantly higher inthis group. The ambulance service nationally remains the onlyemergency service without a strategy for health and fitness.The results of the present study justify consideration of sucha programme.     

深圳市某企业员工脂肪肝患病情况分析

目的探讨广东省深圳市企业员工脂肪肝患病情况及其影响因素。方法对深圳市某企业1 612名员工的健康体检资料进行t检验、χ2检验和Logistic回归分析。结果深圳市某企业员工的脂肪肝患病率为32.5%,脂肪肝组体重指数(27.83±3.53)kg/m2、腰围(92.09±8.64)cm、收缩压(128.99±13.73)mmHg、舒张压(82.49±11.39)mmHg(1 mmHg=0.133kPa)、总胆固醇(5.41±1.00)mmol/L、甘油三酯(2.53±2.20)mmol/L、低密度脂蛋白(3.43±0.81)mmol/L、空腹血糖(5.28±1.31)mmol/L、谷丙转氨酶(45.83±31.07)U/L和尿酸(453.51±89.39)μmol/L等指标高于非脂肪肝组,高密度脂蛋白(1.06±0.21)mmol/L低于非脂肪肝组(P均<0.01)。结论深圳市企业员工脂肪肝患病率较高,影响因素较多,有必要采取一系列综合性防治措施。     

Heart disease risk factors in the Vietnamese community of southwestern Sydney

Abstract: Despite low mortality from heart disease in the New South Wales Vietnamese community, the prevalence of risk factors for heart disease has been increasing. This study sought to identify the prevalence of heart disease risk factors in the Vietnamese community in southwestern Sydney. In 1991, 389 randomly selected Vietnamese-born residents of southwestern Sydney (79.2 per cent response rate) were interviewed by telephone about their risk status. Sixty-one per cent of this sample agreed to a second interview in their homes where physical measurements were taken. Smoking prevalence was high in males (53 per cent), whereas raised blood pressure (5.1 per cent), high blood cholesterol (21.1 per cent) and overweight (14.0 per cent) had a low prevalence compared to National Heart Foundation data for the general population. Interventions targeting males about smoking should be a health promotion priority, and the maintenance of the traditional Vietnamese diet should be encouraged.     

Heightened risk of hypertension among black males: the masking effects of covariables

This study examines the extent to which a set of 10 demographic, behavioral, and medical risk factors explain black/white differences in hypertension. Data are from a cross-sectional examination of San Francisco transit drivers aged 25-65 years surveyed during 1983-1985 as part of an occupational health study. The inherent restriction of the study population to bus drivers and the further restriction to males in this population (764 blacks and 224 whites) controlled for factors related to occupation and sex. Control of 10 additional potential risk factors, including age, education, body mass index, smoking, and intake of caffeine and alcohol was possible in the analytic phase of the study. The unadjusted prevalence of hypertension (systolic blood pressure greater than or equal to 140 mmHg, diastolic blood pressure greater than or equal to 90 mmHg, or current use of antihypertensive medications) was 36.1 per cent for black males compared with 30.8 per cent for white males. The greatest difference in prevalence was observed for black males aged 55-64 years, for whom the prevalence was 46 per cent higher than for white males the same age. Despite higher rates of hypertension, blacks in all age groups exhibited lower levels of most major risk factors for hypertension. As a result, the independent effect of race on hypertension was increased rather than attenuated when the 10 covariables were taken into account (odds ratio of 1.27 in the unadjusted analysis, increasing to 1.54 in the adjusted, multivariate analysis). That this set of risk factors did not explain the higher rates of hypertension among blacks suggests that racial differences may arise from as yet unrecognized environmental and/or individual factors. The results also indicate that the association between race and blood pressure may have been underestimated in past studies that have relied on unadjusted analyses, in which negative confounding or masking effects of covariables have not been considered.     

High mortality from renal disease and infection in Aboriginal central Australians with diabetes

Abstract: Few studies have examined the consequences of the high prevalence of diabetes in Aboriginal communities. We aimed to determine the rates and causes of mortality in all Aboriginal central Australians with diagnosed diabetes, identified by a previous study (n = 374). Cohort members were followed from 1 January 1984, or the date of diagnosis (to 31 December 1986), to 31 December 1991 or death. Death certificates, medical notes and autopsy reports were examined for cause of death. There were 130 deaths in 2280.7 person–years of follow-up. Standardised mortality ratios for Aboriginal people with diabetes, compared to the Northern Territory Aboriginal population, were 209 (95 per cent confidence interval (CI) 158 to 273) for men and 169 (CI 129 to 218) for women. The difference in ratios for men and women was not statistically significant when adjusted for age (P = 0.2). The eight-year survival rates for men and women diagnosed between 1984 and 1986 were 55.8 per cent (CI 32.6 to 73.7) for men and 80.3 per cent (CI 64.8 to 89.5) for women. Renal disease was the direct cause of death in 22.3 per cent Infection accounted for 20.8 per cent of deaths and ischaemic heart disease for 13.8 per cent Forty-four per cent of death certificates made no mention of diabetes. Diabetes confers an additional risk of death on a population whose mortality is already markedly worse than that of other Australians. Unlike Western diabetic populations, infections and renal disease were more common causes of death than macrovascular disease. Diabetes amplifies the effect of the community prevalence of infection and renal disease.     

Thirty-year trends in cardiovascular risk factor levels among US adults with diabetes: National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1971-2000

Among US adults with diabetes, using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 1971-1974, 1976-1980, 1988-1994, and 1999-2000, the authors describe 30-year trends in total cholesterol, blood pressure, and smoking levels. Using Bayesian models, the authors calculated mean changes per year and 95% credible intervals for age-adjusted mean total cholesterol and blood pressure levels and the prevalence of high total cholesterol (> or =5.17 mmol/liter), high blood pressure (systolic blood pressure: > or =140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure: > or =90 mmHg), and smoking. Between 1971-1974 and 1999-2000, mean total cholesterol declined from 5.95 mmol/liter to 5.48 mmol/liter (-0.02 (95% credible interval: -0.03, -0.01) mmol/liter per year). The proportion with high cholesterol decreased from 72% to 55%. Mean blood pressure declined from 146/86 mmHg to 134/72 mmHg (systolic blood pressure: -0.5 (95% credible interval: -1.1, 0.5) mmHg per year; diastolic blood pressure: -0.6 (95% credible interval: -1.0, -0.03) mmHg per year). The proportion with high blood pressure decreased from 64% to 37%, and smoking prevalence decreased from 32% to 17%. Although these trends are encouraging, still one of two people with diabetes has high cholesterol, one of three has high blood pressure, and one of six is a smoker.     

Patterns of physical activity and relationship with risk markers for cardiovascular disease and diabetes in Indian,Pakistani, Bangladeshi and European adults in a UK population

BACKGROUND: Differences in level of physical activity between European, Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi populations living in the UK might contribute to differences in the prevalence of diabetes and cardiovascular disease risk markers that exist in these populations. METHODS: Type and level of physical activity (measured by a multidimensional index) and its relationship with selected cardiovascular disease and diabetes risk factors were assessed in a cross-sectional, population-based study of European, Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi men and women, aged 25-75, resident in Newcastle upon Tyne. RESULTS: Europeans were found to be more physically active than Indians, Pakistanis or Bangladeshis. On our physical activity index 52 per cent of European men did not meet current guidelines for participation in physical activity compared with 71 per cent of Indians, 88 per cent of Pakistanis and 87 per cent of Bangladeshis. Similar findings are reported for women. In particular, European men and women participated more frequently in moderate and vigorous sport and recreational activities. In general, level of physical activity was inversely correlated with body mass index (BMI), waist measurement, systolic blood pressure, and blood glucose and insulin in all ethnic groups, but did not correlate with high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. CONCLUSIONS: South Asians in Newcastle report significantly lower levels of habitual physical activity than Europeans. This is likely to contribute to the higher levels of diabetes and cardiovascular risk in these populations. Measures to increase physical activity in these populations are urgently needed.     

贵州地区汉族居民糖尿病患病情况及相关危险因素研究

目的 了解贵州地区汉族居民空腹血糖水平,分析糖尿病相关危险因素。方法 采用多阶段整群抽样方法,选取20～80岁汉族居民进行调查。调查内容包括问卷调查、体格检查和实验室检测。比较城乡不同年龄、性别人群空腹血糖水平和糖尿病相关危险因素。结果 共纳入研究对象2 967人,城镇居民空腹血糖平均值高于农村(5.21 mmol/L vs. 5.03 mmol/L,P< 0.001),男性高于女性(5.23 mmol/L vs. 5.09 mmol/L,P=0.003),血糖水平有随年龄增长的趋势(P< 0.001)。城镇居民糖尿病标化患病率为6.01%(粗率7.45%),其中男性显著高于女性(P< 0.001),随年龄增长患病率升高。农村居民标化患病率为3.47%(粗率3.77%),性别差异无统计学意义,随年龄增长患病率升高。相同年龄性别下,≥40岁城镇居民患病率高于农村居民。糖尿病患者中知晓率为56.59%,治疗率为84.47%,控制率为41.38%。多因素分析显示,男性发病风险高于女性、年龄≥40岁发病风险升高、有糖尿病家族史、经常进行身体锻炼、高血压、高甘油三酯者糖尿病的发病风险增加。结论 贵州汉族居民糖尿病患病率较高,城乡患病率差异大,半数以上糖尿病患者治疗后血糖未达到控制水平,糖尿病知晓率、治疗率及控制率仍需进一步提高。     

Aboriginal deaths in Western Australia: 1985-89 and 1990-94

OBJECTIVE: To examine death data for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal persons in Western Australia (WA) in 1985-89 and 1990-94. METHODS: Population estimates were provided by the Health Information Centre of the WA Health Department based on data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). Death data came from the WA Registrar-General's Office. Standard methods were used to obtain rates and levels of significance. RESULTS: Main causes of deaths among Aboriginal males in 1990-94 were circulatory conditions, respiratory, injury and poisoning, neoplasms and endocrine diseases; in Aboriginal females they were circulatory, neoplasms, endocrine diseases, respiratory diseases, and injury and poisoning. From 1985-89 to 1990-94, the Aboriginal male all-cause age-standardised death rates fell 3% (ns) while the non-Aboriginal male rate fell 11% (p < 0.05). The Aboriginal female all-cause death rate rose 11% (ns) while the non-Aboriginal rate fell 5% (p < 0.05). The all-cause death rate ratio (Aboriginal:non-Aboriginal) changed from 2.4 to 2.6 (males) and 2.5 to 2.9 (females). There was a major increase in deaths from endocrine diseases among Aborigines and non-Aborigines. This increase was proportionally much greater among Aborigines. In non-Aborigines there was a significant decrease in deaths from circulatory diseases (mainly ischaemic heart disease); this did not occur among Aborigines. CONCLUSIONS: Over the study period, Aboriginal health standards, as reflected by death rates, apparently worsened relative to non-Aboriginal standards. IMPLICATIONS: Better health promotion, disease prevention and disease care are required to help achieve acceptable health standards among Aboriginal peoples.     

Energy metabolism and requirements in different ethnic groups

Some studies on energy metabolism of men and women in Third World countries suggested that their basal metabolic rate (BMR) is lower compared to BMRs of people in Northern European and American countries. It is, however, not clear whether this results from ethnic factors, climate or adaptation to, for instance, a low energy intake. A study on energy requirements of people from Third World countries has therefore been performed. People with different ethnic backgrounds participated; they were divided into four ethnic groups: 8 African males, 7 Asian males of Mongolian origin (Asian-M), 8 Asian males of Caucasian origin (Asian-C) and 7 European males, who formed the control group. The participants from outside Europe had spent at least 3 months in the Netherlands. All participants consumed a diet (12 per cent of energy from protein, 22 per cent from fat and 66 per cent from carbohydrate) during 8 d. The dietary energy given to each individual was estimated to maintain energy equilibrium during the experiment. The last 3 nights and 2 days were spent in an indirect whole-body calorimeter. Two 24-h energy expenditure (24hEE) measurements were performed on each subject. The environmental temperature inside the calorimeter was 22.0-24.5 degrees C. Physical activity was light, mainly sedentary, with 75 min bicycling at 15 W. The Asian subjects had a significantly lower body weight and fat-free mass than the Europeans. Energy requirement (ER), 24hEE and EE during the night (8 h sleep) was lower in the Asian and African subjects compared to the Europeans, but the difference only reached significance for the Asian-C and African males. When ER, 24hEE and EE-night were expressed in relation to body weight and fat-free mass the Asian groups showed a higher ER and higher EE than the Europeans. This result is contrary to findings of others and may be caused eg, by a higher body weight and fat-free mass of the European controls. Comparison of EE-night with BMR estimated from FAO/WHO/UNU equations showed that the EE-night was consistently lower by about 9 per cent. This suggests that EE during the night may not be predicted by the BMR estimated by widely used equations. This study does not give conclusive evidence that an ethnic factor is involved in energy metabolism in humans.