Serogroups and genotypes of Leptospira spp. strains from bovine aborted foetuses

Leptospirosis is a global disease of animals, with potential major economic impact on livestock industry and important zoonotic capacities. The disease represents a major challenge in the developing countries as humans and animals frequently live in close association. The serovar Hardjo of Leptospira whose primary host is cattle has been studied extensively, but few data exist on other current circulating or emerging serotypes. To better understand the disease in cattle and how to prevent and/or control it, it is necessary to identify the genotype and the serotype of circulating Leptospira . This study presents results of several investigations performed on a historical Belgian collection of congenital jaundice in bovine aborted foetuses coming from the leptospirosis emerging episode of 2014 (Delooz et al., Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 62, 2015, 124). The results revealed that L.  Grippotyphosa and L.  Australis were the most prevalent serogroups with, respectively, 17/42 and 13/42 positive microscopic agglutination test (MAT) during this emerging event associated with the same clinical pattern. The study also confirms that congenital jaundice is associated with L. kirscheneri and L. interrogans and provides the genotyping of DNA obtained from these two species.     

Spatial analysis of lumpy skin disease in Eurasia—Predicting areas at risk for further spread within the region

Data from affected lumpy skin disease (LSD) locations between July 2012 and September 2018 in the Balkans, Caucasus, and Middle East were retrieved from FAO's Global Animal Disease Information System (EMPRES‐i) from the European Commission's Animal Disease Notification System (ADNS) and completed with data from the official veterinary services of some countries. During this period, a total of 7,593 locations from 22 countries were affected. Within this period, over 46,000 cattle were clinically affected by LSD, 3,700 animals died and 17,500 were slaughtered due to culling policies to stop the spread of the disease. Most outbreaks occurred in 2016, between the months of May and November. The affected region was divided into a grid of 10 × 10 km cells and we fit a spatial regression model to analyse the association between the reported LSD outbreaks and climatic variables, land cover, and cattle density. The results showed big differences in the odds of being LSD positive due to the type of land cover: the odds of a cell being LSD positive was increased in areas mostly covered with croplands, grassland, or shrubland. The odds was also increased for higher cattle density, as well as areas with higher annual mean temperature and higher temperature diurnal range. The resulting model was utilized to predict the LSD risk in neighbouring unaffected areas in Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, identifying several areas with high risk of spread. Results from this study provide useful information for the design of surveillance and awareness systems, and preventive measures, e.g., vaccination programmes.     

Variables Associated with Infections of Cattle by Brucella abortus., Leptospira spp. and Neospora spp. in Amazon Region in Brazil

The frequency of Neospora spp., Leptospira spp. and Brucella abortus infections in adult cattle was determined in herds of the State of Pará, Brazil, which is an important region for cattle production located in the Amazon region. A total of 3466 adult female cattle from 176 herds were tested, leading to a frequency of seropositive animals of 14.7%, 3.7% and 65.5% and a herd positivity of 87.4%, 41.3% and 98.8% for infections caused by Neospora spp., B. abortus and Leptospira spp., respectively. The five most frequently diagnosed serologic responses to Leptospira spp. were those against serovars hardjo, wolfii, grippotyphosa, hebdomadis and shermani. The following associations were found: practice of artificial insemination, large farm size, large herd size, large number of dogs and high number of total abortions per year with the presence of antibodies against serovar hardjo; positive results to serovar grippotyphosa with the presence of dogs; inappropriate disposal of aborted foetuses with positivity to serovar hebdomadis. Serovar grippotyphosa was also associated with number of episodes of abortions. Neospora spp. positive herds were associated with episodes of abortion and B. abortus infection with the disposal of dead animals and aborted foetuses on pastures and with the use of artificial insemination. In conclusion, the high frequency of brucellosis, leptospirosis and neosporosis in the region may be a consequence of social, natural and raising conditions as: (i) climate conditions that favour the survival and spread of pathogens in the environment; (ii) farms located in regions bordering forest areas; (iii) farms in areas of difficult access to the veterinary service; (iv) extensive beef herds raised at pastures with different age and productive groups inter‐mingled; and (v) minimal concerns regarding hygiene practices and disease prevention measures.     

Vertical transmission may play a greater role in the spread of Leishmania infantum in synanthropic Mus musculus rodents than previously believed

Vertical transmission of Leishmania infantum was demonstrated in domestic mice captured close to the home of a patient with leishmaniasis. Leishmania infantum DNA was detected in 88.9% of synanthropic Mus musculus adult rodents and 29.2% of their unborn foetuses. Mother‐to‐infant transmission was observed in all females whose gestational stage was sufficiently advanced to allow foetal analysis (foetal length 2–2.5 cm). The infection rate in foetal samples ranged from 11.1% to 50.0%, with parasite loads of up to 6,481 parasites/5 mg tissue. A low density of Phlebotomus perniciosus was also found (0.2 specimen/CDC trap). Six infected mice captured in March were only 1.5 months old and could thus not have had contact with the vector. Vertical transmission thus appears to play a greater role in the spread of leishmaniasis than previously thought, particularly since rodents are natural hosts for the parasite and are prolific in nature.     

Beyond Rabies: Are Free‐Ranging Skunks (Mephitis mephitis) in British Columbia Reservoirs of Emerging Infection?

Wild animal reservoirs are an important source of emerging and zoonotic infection. Skunks (Mephitis mephitis) are a reservoir of skunk strain rabies virus in Canada, with the exception of some areas including the province of British Columbia (BC). Beyond rabies, the reservoir status of skunks for emerging and zoonotic pathogens in BC is unknown. From March 2011 to February 2015, 50 free‐ranging skunks were necropsied and tested for 4 pathogens: influenza A, Aleutian disease virus (ADV), Leptospira spp. and Salmonella spp. Two skunks (4%) with respiratory disease caused by influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 were detected during the human flu season suggesting that skunks may represent a target population for reverse zoonosis of this strain of influenza A virus. High prevalence of ADV infection was detected (43/50, 86%). Two of the infected skunks exhibited Aleutian disease (AD) suggesting that skunks act as both a reservoir and a target population for the virus. Most studies of ADV have focused on the potential for infection of free‐ranging species living near mink farms. Our study suggests that urban skunks may be a primary host for the virus independent of domestic mink. Whether skunks act as a reservoir of ADV infection for other peridomestic species will depend on host specificity of the viral strains. Leptospira interrogans was detected in 18% (9/49) of the skunks. Identification of the serovar(s) detected is needed to determine any public health risk of leptospirosis following exposure to infected skunks. Salmonella spp. was isolated from three of 43 skunks (7%), specifically S. Typhimurium, S. Muenchen and S. Enteritidis. These serotypes cause disease in humans, but the low prevalence of infection suggests there is a low risk for zoonotic transmission.     

Seroprevalence of selected flaviviruses in free‐living and captive capuchin monkeys in the state of Pernambuco,Brazil

Mosquito‐borne diseases such as dengue, yellow fever and, more recently, Chikungunya virus (CHIKV ) and Zika virus (ZIKV ) have a great impact in the public health. In addition, the presence of such viruses might have an impact on wild animal conservation as well as their possible role as animal reservoir. Here, we performed a serological survey searching for antibodies against a panel of flaviviruses [ZIKV , Dengue virus (DENV ), Yellow Fever virus (YFV ), West Nile virus (WNV ), Saint Louis Encephalitis virus (SLEV ), Ilheus virus (ILHV ) and Rocio virus (ROCV )] using plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT ₉₀) in both free‐ranging and captive capuchin monkeys (Sapajus flavius and Sapajus libidinosus ). Captive and free‐living monkeys were sampled between June 2015 and January 2016 in the state of Pernambuco, including in the border with State of Paraíba, the epicentre of the ZIKV epidemics in Brazil. We have found neutralizing antibodies for ZIKV , DENV ‐1, DENV ‐2, DENV ‐3, DENV ‐4, YFV , ILHV and SLEV in both S . flavius and S . libidinosus samples. No positives samples were found for ROCV and WNV . Our results suggest that these flaviviruses might be circulating in capuchin monkey in the studied region. The possible presence of these viruses represents a risk for public health, as well as for animal conservation, especially for S . flavius which is a critically endangered species, facing high risk of extinction.     

Risks from disease caused by Mycobacterium orygis as a consequence of Greater one‐horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) translocation in Nepal

The greater one‐horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN Red List. Mycobacterium orygis–associated disease was identified in a single greater one‐horned rhino in Chitwan National Park in February 2015 prior to a planned translocation of five greater one‐horned rhinoceros from Chitwan National Park to Bardia National Park for conservation purposes. This paper describes a qualitative disease risk analysis conducted retrospectively post‐translocation for Mycobacterium orygis and this translocation, with the aim to improve the understanding of disease threats to the conservation of greater one‐horned rhino. The disease risk analysis method used was devised by Sainsbury & Vaughan‐Higgins (Conservation Biology, 26, 2017, 442) with modifications by Bobadilla Suarez et al (EcoHealth, 14, 2017, 1) and Rideout et al (EcoHealth, 14, 2017, 42) and included the use of a scenario tree and an analysis of uncertainty as recommended by Murray et al. (Handbook on import risk analysis for animals and animal products. Volume 1. Introduction and qualitative risk analysis, 2004), and the first time this combination of methods has been used to assess the risk from disease in a conservation translocation. The scenario tree and analysis of uncertainty increased the clarity and transparency of the analysis. Rideout et al.’s (EcoHealth, 14, 2017, 42) criteria were used to assess the source hazard and may be useful in comparative assessment of source hazards for future conservation translocations. The likelihood of release into the destination site of Mycobacterium orygis as a source hazard was estimated as of low risk, the risk of exposure of populations at the destination was of high risk and the likelihood of biological and environmental consequences was low. Overall, the risk from disease associated with Mycobacterium orygis as a result of this translocation was found to be low. Recommendations on disease risk management strategies could be improved with a better understanding of the epidemiology including the presence/absence of Mycobacterium orygis in greater one‐horned rhino to develop effective disease risk management strategies.     

Factors associated with the prevalence of antibodies against Brucella abortus in water buffaloes from Santarém,Lower Amazon region,Brazil

We evaluated the factors associated with the prevalence of antibodies against Brucella abortus in buffaloes in the municipality of Santarém, Western Pará, northern Brazil. The study was conducted on 60 farms, representing 25.8% of the total buffalo farms in the region. From those farms, a total of 426 buffaloes were sampled, males of any age and females more than 24 months of age, to avoid a false‐positive reaction in the serological test due to vaccination. The Acidified Agglutination Serum Test was carried out on serum samples using B. abortus strain 1,119–3 as the antigen. Univariate and multivariate analysis were performed to investigate the association between brucellosis and potential risk factors. Of the 426 tested buffaloes, 29 were positive, resulting in an overall animal prevalence of antibodies against B. abortus at the animal level of 6.8% (4.6–9.6; 95% confidence interval). The herd level prevalence was 30% (18 of 60) and seroprevalence range within farms was from 0% to 100%. At the animal level, buffaloes raised in the floodplains tended (p = 0.06) to present a higher seroprevalence (9.70%) of antibodies against B. abortus than buffaloes raised in dry land (4.98%) and cows tended (p = 0.054) to have a higher seroprevalence than male buffaloes. Multivariate herd‐level analysis revealed association between farm type and brucellosis seroprevalence (p = 0.015); dairy farms were two times more likely to have seropositive buffalo than beef farms. Our survey demonstrated a high farm seroprevalence of B. abortus in buffalo raised in an Amazonian ecosystem with positive animals found in one third of sampled farms.     

First report on characterization and pathogenicity study of emerging Lactococcus garvieae infection in farmed rainbow trout,Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), from India

“ Warm water lactococcosis” in farm‐reared rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) in the northern Himalayan region of India, caused by bacterium Lactococcus garvieae is described in this study. Nine bacterial isolates were recovered from the organs of haemorrhagic septicaemia rainbow trout and were subjected to biochemical and molecular identification. Cell surface characteristics and virulence of the bacterial isolates are also described. All the nine bacterial isolates had homogenous biochemical characteristics and were Gram‐positive, short chains forming (two to eight cells long), α‐haemolytic, non‐motile ovoid cocci. Partial 16S rDNA nucleotide sequence (~1,400 bp) of current isolates shared 99% identities with the 16S rDNA nucleotide sequence of L. garvieae R421, L. garvieae FMA 395 and L. garvieae CAU :1730. The identity of the bacterial isolates was further confirmed by PCR amplification of L . garvieae‐ specific ~1,100 bp fragment. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM ) of one representative isolate, L. garvieae RTCLI 04, indicates that the isolated strain lacks thick outer capsule and is of KG + (non‐capsulates) phenotype. An intraperitoneal and intramuscular injection (2.6 × 10⁵ CFU ml⁻¹) and also immersion in bacterial suspension @ of 2.6 × 10⁵ CFU ml⁻¹ to healthy rainbow trout juveniles (body weight: 27.5 ± 3.7 g) with L . garvieae RTCLI 04 caused 80%, 60% and 10% cumulative mortality in challenged fish, respectively, within 15 days post‐infection. The haemorrhagic septicaemic disease was reproduced experimentally. Histopathological examination of organs of experimentally infected fish revealed extensive degenerative and inflammatory changes in eye, kidney, gill and liver. PCR amplification of several putative virulence genes such as haemolysins, adhesins, LP xTG ‐containing surface proteins and adhesins cluster confirms the virulence of our Indian L. garvieae isolates. To the best of our knowledge, we are reporting for the first time that L. garvieae is associated with fatal haemorrhagic septicaemia in farmed rainbow trout in India.     

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) as a potential natural reservoir of human cryptosporidiosis by Cryptosporidium hominis in Northwest Spain

Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. are ubiquitous intestinal protozoa that parasitize domestic and wild animals, as well as human beings. Due to their zoonotic potential, the objective of the present study was to determine the presence of these pathogens in the fox population (Vulpes vulpes) located in Northwest Spain. A total of 197 faecal samples from legally hunted foxes were collected in the autonomous region of Galicia. The presence of G. duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. was investigated by PCR‐based methods amplifying the small subunit ribosomal RNA (ssu rRNA) gene of the parasites. Attempts to genotype obtained positive samples were subsequently conducted at the glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) and β‐giardin (bg) genes of G. duodenalis, and the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene of Cryptosporidium. Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. were identified in 19 (9.6%) and 12 (6.1%) of the investigated samples, respectively. However, five Cryptosporidium species were detected at the ssu rRNA locus: C. hominis (33.4%, 4/12), C. canis (25.0%, 3/12), C. parvum (16.7%, 2/12), C. ubiquitum (8.3%, 1/12) and C. suis (8.3%, 1/12). An additional Cryptosporidium‐positive sample was identified at the genus level only. Typing and subtyping of Giardia‐ and Cryptosporidium‐positive samples were unsuccessful. The detection of C. hominis in wild foxes indicates the probable overlapping of sylvatic and domestic cycles of this parasite in rural settings. Besides, this finding raises the question of whether red foxes may act as natural reservoirs of C. hominis. The detection of C. parvum and C. suis is suggestive of active transmission events between farm and wild animals, opening up the possibility of transmission to human beings.     

Seroepidemiology of ovine toxoplasmosis and neosporosis in breeding rams from Rio Grande do Sul,Brazil

This study determined the prevalence of ovine toxoplasmosis and neosporosis and the risk factors associated with the development of these diseases in breeding rams from the State of Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Southern Brazil. Serum samples (n = 1,800) from breeding rams maintained on 705 sheep farms from seven mesoregions were evaluated serologically to detect anti‐IgG Toxoplasma gondii by indirect ELISA and anti‐IgG Neospora caninum by the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA). The prevalence of T. gondii was 33.05% (595/1,800); seropositivity to N. caninum was 18.44% (332/1,800). Additionally, there was simultaneous seropositivity (8.94%;161/1,800) to N. caninum and T. gondii. The variables size of the property (<500 ha) (Prevalence Ratio, PR = 1.36); breeding system (semi‐intensive/intensive) (PR = 1.23); and natural mounting without control (PR = 1.50) were considered as risk factors for the occurrence of T. gondii. Size of the property (<500 ha) (PR = 1.58) and natural mounting without control (PR = 2.32) were risk factors associated with the prevalence of N. caninum in rams. Additionally, separation of ewes prior to parturition was considered as a protective factor for the occurrence of T. gondii (PR = 0.82) and N. caninum (PR = 0.74). These results demonstrated that these two parasitic disease agents are endemic in rams throughout all regions of RS.     

Rift Valley Fever in Kruger National Park: Do Buffalo Play a Role in the Inter‐Epidemic Circulation of Virus?

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a zoonotic mosquito‐borne virus disease of livestock and wild ruminants that has been identified as a risk for international spread. Typically, the disease occurs in geographically limited outbreaks associated with high rainfall events and can cause massive losses of livestock. It is unclear how RVF virus persists during inter‐epidemic periods but cryptic cycling of the virus in wildlife populations may play a role. We investigated the role that free‐living African buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) might play in inter‐epidemic circulation of the virus and looked for geographic, age and sex patterns of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) infection in African buffalo. Buffalo serum samples were collected (n = 1615) in Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, during a period of 1996–2007 and tested for antibodies to RVF. We found that older animals were more likely to be seropositive for anti‐RVFV antibody than younger animals, but sex was not correlated with the likelihood of being anti‐RVFV antibody positive. We also found geographic variation within KNP; herds in the south were more likely to have acquired anti‐RVFV antibody than herds farther north – which could be driven by host or vector ecology. In all years of the study between 1996 and 2007, we found young buffalo (under 2 years of age) that were seropositive for anti‐RVFV antibody, with prevalence ranging between 0 and 27% each year, indicating probable circulation. In addition, we also conducted a 4‐year longitudinal study on 227 initially RVFV seronegative buffalo to look for evidence of seroconversion outside known RVF outbreaks within our study period (2008–2012). In the longitudinal study, we found five individuals that seroconverted from anti‐RVFV antibody negative to anti‐RVFV antibody positive, outside of any detected outbreak. Overall, our results provide evidence of long‐term undetected circulation of RVFV in the buffalo population.     

Cultural competency of a mobile,customized patient education tool for improving potential kidney transplant recipients’ knowledge and decision‐making

Patients considering renal transplantation face an increasingly complex array of choices as a result of the revised kidney transplant allocation system. Decision aids have been shown to improve patient decision‐making through the provision of detailed, relevant, individualized clinical data. A mobile iOS‐based application (app) including animated patient education and individualized risk‐adjusted outcomes following kidney transplants with varying donor characteristics and DSA waiting times was piloted in two large US transplant programs with a diverse group of renal transplant candidates (N = 81). The majority (86%) of patients felt that the app improved their knowledge and was culturally appropriate for their race/ethnicity (67%‐85%). Patients scored significantly higher on transplant knowledge testing (9.1/20 to 13.8/20, P < .001) after viewing the app, including patients with low health literacy (8.0 to 13.0, P < .001). Overall knowledge of and interest in living and deceased donor kidney transplantation increased. This pilot project confirmed the benefit and cultural acceptability of this educational tool, and further refinement will explore how to better communicate the risks and benefits of nonstandard donors.     

Identifying Areas Suitable for the Occurrence of Rift Valley Fever in North Africa: Implications for Surveillance

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a vector‐borne zoonotic disease that has caused widespread outbreaks throughout Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, with serious consequences for livestock‐based economies and public health. Although there have never been any reports of RVF in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, it is a priority disease in the Maghreb, due to the threat of introduction of the virus through transboundary livestock movements or infected mosquito vectors. However, the implementation of surveillance activities and early warning contingency plans requires better knowledge of the epidemiological situation. We conducted a multicriteria decision analysis, integrating host distribution with a combination of important ecological factors that drive mosquito abundance, to identify hotspots and suitable time periods for RVF enzootic circulation (i.e. stable transmission at a low to moderate level for an extended period of time) and an RVF epizootic event (i.e. a sudden occurrence of a large number of infected animals over a large geographic area) in the Maghreb. We also modelled vector species distribution using available information on vector presence and habitat preference. We found that the northern regions of the Maghreb were moderately suitable for RVF enzootics, but highly suitable for RVF epizootics. The vector species distribution model identified these regions as the most favourable mosquito habitats. Due to the low density of animal hosts and arid conditions, the desert region showed low RVF suitability, except in oases. However, the presence of competent vectors in putative unsuitable areas underlines the need for further assessments of mosquito habitat preference. This study produced monthly RVF suitability maps useful for animal health managers and veterinary services involved in designing risk‐based surveillance programmes. The suitability maps can be further enhanced using existing country‐specific sources of information and by incorporating knowledge – as it becomes available – on the epidemiology of the disease and distribution of vectors in the Maghreb.     

Genomic epidemiology of the emerging pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis from native and invasive amphibian species in Chile

Emerging fungal diseases represent a threat to food security, animal and human health worldwide. Amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd ), has been associated with catastrophic and well‐documented amphibian population declines and extinctions. For the first time, Bd was cultured from native and non‐native wild amphibians in Chile. Phylogenomic analyses revealed that Chilean isolates AVS2, AVS4 and AVS7 group within the global panzootic lineage of Bd (Bd GPL) in a single highly supported clade that includes a genotype previously isolated from the United Kingdom. Our results extend the known distribution of Bd GPL in South America and suggest a single and relatively recent introduction of Bd GPL into the country, providing additional support to the role of anthropogenic activity in the global spread of this panzootic lineage.     

Distribution of Schmallenberg Virus and Seroprevalence in Belgian Sheep and Goats

A serological survey to detect Schmallenberg virus (SBV)‐specific antibodies by ELISA was organized in the Belgian sheep population to study the seroprevalence at the end of the epidemic. One thousand eighty‐two sheep samples which were collected from 83 herds all over Belgium between November 2011 and April 2012 were tested. The overall within‐herd seroprevalence and the intraclass correlation coefficient were estimated at 84.31% (95% CI: 84.19–84.43) and 0.34, respectively. The overall between‐herd seroprevalence was 98.03% (95% CI: 97.86–98.18). A spatial cluster analysis identified a cluster of six farms with significantly lower within‐herd seroprevalence in the south of Belgium compared with the rest of the population (P = 0.04). It was shown that seroprevalence was associated to flock density and that the latter explained the presence of the spatial cluster. Additionally, 142 goat samples from eight different herds were tested for SBV‐specific antibodies. The within‐herd seroprevalence in goats was estimated at 40.68% (95% CI: 23.57–60.4%). The results of the current study provided evidence that almost every Belgian sheep herd has been in contact with SBV during 2011 and should be taken into consideration as part of comprehensive SBV surveillance and control strategies.     

The relationship between methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase c.677TT genotype and oligozoospermia in infertile male patients living in the Trakya region of Turkey

Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), the key enzyme of the folate metabolic pathway, has been reported to be five times more active in the testicles compared to other organs in adult mice. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between MTHFR c.677C>T and c.1298A>C polymorphisms and infertility in nonobstructive azoospermic and oligozoospermic male patients living in the Trakya region of Turkey. The study population included 75 nonobstructive azoospermic and 62 oligozoospermic, nonconsanguineous patients who were referred to the Department of Medical Genetics of Trakya University between 01.03.2012 and 01.06.2013 due to infertility and who had been diagnosed based on clinical examinations and spermiograms. All of the patients had a normal karyotype without a Y chromosome microdeletion. Melting curve analysis with labelled probes and primers that were designed by the manufacturers and the real‐time polymerase chain reaction method were used. The MTHFR c.677TT genotype frequency in the oligozoospermic infertile male patient group was greater than that of the fertile control group [odds ratio (OR) = 2.675 (95% CI: 0.979–7.305), (P < 0.048)]. The MTHFR c.677TT genotype may be a genetic risk factor for oligozoospermic infertile male patients who live in the Trakya region of Turkey.