Chocolate cravings are susceptible to visuo-spatial interference

The study investigated the specificity of visuo-spatial working memory-based techniques as a means to reduce chocolate cravings. Twenty-four self-identified chocolate cravers and 24 non-cravers formed and maintained images of chocolate-containing foods elicited by pictures, while performing a visuo-spatial task (loading the visuo-spatial sketch pad) or an auditory task (loading the phonological loop). Vividness and craving intensity were rated for each image. Concurrent visuo-spatial processing was found to render chocolate images significantly less vivid and cravings less intense compared to concurrent verbal processing, for both cravers and non-cravers. Chocolate cravers did, however, report higher levels of chocolate craving and intake than non-cravers. It was concluded that visuo-spatial tasks provide an effective craving reduction mechanism for the management of chocolate cravings. Such techniques may be particularly useful in populations for whom eating problems are triggered by chocolate craving.     

Food liking and craving: A cross-cultural approach.

Spanish and American participants rated how much they liked three common sweets and three common beverages listed on a questionnaire. They also named the food or drink for which they had the strongest craving. Cross-cultural comparisons in liking were almost always consistent with cross-cultural comparisons in rates of exposure. In both cultures, among subjects whose cravings could be so classified more females (about 5/8) craved sweet foods than savories and more males (about 5/8) craved savories than sweets. Among sweet cravers, chocolate craving was much more frequent for American females (44.6%) than for American males (17.4%), but no such gender difference occurred for the Spaniards (28.6 and 22.2%). The results argue for a possible physiological basis for the gender differences in sweet/savory craving but against a physiological basis for chocolate craving.     

Gender differences in the relation between food cravings and mood in an adult community: Results from the fleurbaix laventie ville santé study.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this survey was to study food cravings and its indulgence in community adults (538 women and 506 men) and to compare nutritional parameters, weight preoccupations, and weight history between cravers and noncravers. METHOD: Cravers experienced a strong urge to eat specific foods more than once a week during the past 6 months. Food intake was estimated by a 3-day food record. RESULTS: 28% of women and 13% of men were food cravers. Cravers, especially women, were more frequently concerned about their weight than noncravers. Energy intake during snacks was higher in cravers. Less than 40% of cravers reported being hungry when they experienced cravings. Women cravers indulged their cravings as often as men. They reported more frequently negative feelings, whereas men reported more frequently positive feelings. DISCUSSION: This study shows that food craving episodes are strongly associated with mood but in a different way in women and men.     

The effect of deprivation on food cravings and eating behavior in restrained and unrestrained eaters

OBJECTIVE: The relation between being deprived of a food and intake and craving for that food was investigated in restrained and unrestrained eaters. METHOD: For 1 week, 103 female undergraduate students were assigned to be chocolate deprived, vanilla deprived, or nondeprived. Only chocolate deprivation was expected to elicit cravings, as chocolate is not easily substituted, whereas vanilla is. RESULTS: The main effect of chocolate deprivation on consumption was qualified by an interaction with restraint. Chocolate-deprived restrained eaters consumed more chocolate food than did any other group. Restrained eaters experienced more food cravings than did unrestrained eaters and were more likely to eat the craved food. Moreover, restrained eaters deprived of chocolate spent the least time doing an anagram task before a "taste-rating task" in which they expected that chocolate foods might be available. CONCLUSION: Converging measures of craving indicate that deprivation causes craving and overeating, but primarily in restrained eaters.     

Mood and carbohydrate cravings

The relationship between mood and carbohydrate cravings, and the possible role of gender in these associations, was investigated in a sample of 113 males and 138 female college students. Participants completed a Cravings Questionnaire and several mood inventories (profile of mood states, Beck Depression Inventory, and the Vitality Inventory) in groups of 25. Individuals classifying themselves as "carbohydrate cravers" reported foods rich in carbohydrates, and "protein cravers" reported protein-rich foods as being the ones they most strongly craved. Carbohydrate cravers reported feeling distressed prior to their cravings and satisfied, happy/good and relaxed following carbohydrate consumption. Protein cravers reported feeling anxious or hungry prior to their cravings and happy, normal, bored, and energetic following protein-rich food consumption. A non-significant correlation existed between "protein" cravers' ratings of craving intensity and mood, but a significant positive correlation existed between "carbohydrate" cravers' ratings of craving intensity and almost all mood scales assessed for both male and female "carbohydrate" cravers. The correlation between craving intensity and mood existed predominately with individuals who craved sweet carbohydrate-rich foods.     

All cravings are not created equal. Correlates of menstrual versus non-cyclic chocolate craving

Chocolate cravings occur regularly in about 45% of American women. Approximately half of these women link their craving temporally to the menstrual cycle, with a significant proportion of cravings reportedly peaking around ovulation or the onset of menstruation. This study aimed to elucidate the correlates of menstrual craving versus non-cyclic craving. Questionnaires assessing the relationships between craving, eating behaviors, attitudes towards weight and shape, and general pathology were completed by 97 women. Menstrual craving was reported by 28.9% (n = 28) and was associated with potentially maladaptive weight- and eating-related behaviors and attitudes, including higher body mass index, elevated dietary restraint, less flexible control over intake, and more guilt associated with the consumption of chocolate. Findings point to potential mechanisms involved in the etiology of menstrual cravings, such as the view of craving as a response to abstinence from high-calorie foods in an attempt to manage cyclically occurring weight fluctuations.     

Food craving, dietary restraint and mood

A common assumption is that dieting causes food cravings, probably as a result of food energy deprivation. This issue was investigated in a two-phase study. In phase one, 206 women completed the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire and a food craving scale. A correlational analysis showed food craving to be only weakly related to dietary restraint, but highly and significantly correlated with external eating, emotional eating and susceptibility to hunger. In phase two, ten women who regularly experienced food cravings and ten who rarely craved food kept prospective records of their food intake, daily mood and food craving episodes. There were few differences in eating behaviour, although the cravers tended to consume slightly more daily energy than the non-cravers. The cravers had higher ratings of boredom and anxiety during the day, and dysphoric mood was prominent prior to the cravings themselves. Food deprivation does not appear to be a necessary condition for food cravings to occur. Rather, food cravings are closely associated with mood, in particular as an antecedent to craving and also as a consequence of craving.     

Experimental effects of chocolate deprivation on cravings, mood, and consumption in high and low chocolate-cravers

This study examined how deprivation of chocolate affects state-level chocolate cravings, mood, and chocolate consumption in high and low trait-level chocolate-cravers. After identifying high and low chocolate cravers (N = 58), half of the participants were instructed not to eat any chocolate for 2 weeks. This created four experimental groups: deprived high-cravers (n = 14), deprived low-cravers (n = 14), non-deprived high-cravers (n = 15), and non-deprived low-cravers (n = 15). Following 2-week deprivation, state-level food cravings, mood, and chocolate intake were measured in a laboratory setting and compared across groups. Analyses revealed that anxiety increased over time for high-cravers (both deprived and non-deprived); state-level chocolate- and food-craving increased over time for both deprived groups and non-deprived high-cravers; non-deprived high-cravers ate the most chocolate; and, high-cravers were more joyful and guilty than low-cravers after eating chocolate in the laboratory. Theoretically, these results suggest that chocolate consumption may be better explained by trait-level of chocolate craving than by deprivation and highlighted significant differences in mood, state-level cravings, and chocolate intake between cravers and non-cravers following deprivation.     

Chocolate craving and hunger state: implications for the acquisition and expression of appetite and food choice

The importance of hunger state for the acquisition and expression of chocolate craving was investigated. Seventeen chocolate cravers and 12 non-cravers were supplied with chocolate and instructed to eat some twice a day for 14 days. Within each group, subjects were allocated to one of two conditions, hungry- or full-trained. Hungry-trained subjects were asked to eat the chocolate exclusively at least 2 h after last eating; full-trained subjects were asked only to eat the chocolate 15-30 min after eating a meal. A diary was kept to encourage and allow assessment of compliance. At the start and end of the 2 weeks, subjects rated their craving for and anticipated intake of chocolate prior to eating it; then, on initial tasting, pleasantness of the taste was rated. All subjects made these ratings on one day when hungry and on another when full, as defined above. For cravers and non-cravers who ate chocolate exclusively when hungry, chocolate craving increased post-training, but, at least for cravers, only when ratings were made while hungry. For full-trained subjects, chocolate craving decreased post-training, but this decrease did not depend on whether subjects were currently hungry or full. A similar pattern of results was found for anticipated intake and pleasantness of taste, except that pleasantness did not increase in hungry-trained subjects. The results are interpreted with reference to learned control of appetite and in particular to recent findings on incentive learning processes. Craving for chocolate or other foods may be an expression of a strong appetite elicited by hunger that has been acquired by repeated experience of eating the craved food when hungry.     

Food cravings and food cue responding across the menstrual cycle in a non-eating disordered sample

The study aim was to examine changes in food cue-elicited cravings and the macronutrient content of craved foods across menstrual cycle phases in a non-eating disordered sample. Thirty-five college females attended laboratory sessions in the late follicular and late luteal phases. In each session they completed a measure of state food craving before and after exposure to preferred, high fat/high sugar chocolate candy. Candy consumption following cue exposure was measured during an ad libitum "taste test." Additionally, participants rated their desire to eat foods differing systematically and significantly in macronutrient content. Ovulation was confirmed with luteinizing hormone detection kits. Results show that whereas the food cue increased cravings, this effect did not differ between cycle phases examined. The macronutrient content of foods desired also did not differ significantly between cycle phases, however, a non-significant trend suggested that high fat/high complex carbohydrate and low fat/high protein foods were more strongly desired in the late luteal phase. Amount of chocolate candy eaten did not differ between cycle phases. These results suggest that cravings for high fat/high sugar foods do not differ between menstrual cycle phases examined, whereas cravings for other foods may fluctuate across cycle phases in non-eating disordered women.     

Use of a clay modeling task to reduce chocolate craving

Elaborated Intrusion theory (EI theory; Kavanagh, Andrade, & May, 2005) posits two main cognitive components in craving: associative processes that lead to intrusive thoughts about the craved substance or activity, and elaborative processes supporting mental imagery of the substance or activity. We used a novel visuospatial task to test the hypothesis that visual imagery plays a key role in craving. Experiment 1 showed that spending 10 min constructing shapes from modeling clay (plasticine) reduced participants' craving for chocolate compared with spending 10 min 'letting your mind wander'. Increasing the load on verbal working memory using a mental arithmetic task (counting backwards by threes) did not reduce craving further. Experiment 2 compared effects on craving of a simpler verbal task (counting by ones) and clay modeling. Clay modeling reduced overall craving strength and strength of craving imagery, and reduced the frequency of thoughts about chocolate. The results are consistent with EI theory, showing that craving is reduced by loading the visuospatial sketchpad of working memory but not by loading the phonological loop. Clay modeling might be a useful self-help tool to help manage craving for chocolate, snacks and other foods.     

Cravings and aversions of pregnant adolescents.

Adolescents from 31 eastern Tennessee counties were interviewed during the third trimester of pregnancy (n = 97) and at 1-year postpartum (n = 64) to assess cravings and aversions, beliefs about dietary cravings, and how these factors influence dietary intake. Characteristics of cravings and aversions were assessed using a semistructured interview. Beliefs about cravings during pregnancy were measured with a 13-item Likert-type scale (alpha = 0.79). Two 24-hour recalls and 2 days' food records provided dietary data. Most adolescents (86%) reported cravings during pregnancy. They most frequently reported cravings for sweets, especially chocolate; fruits and fruit juices; fast foods; pickles; ice cream; and pizza. Many participants (66%) experienced aversions during pregnancy toward previously liked foods. The most common aversions were to meats, eggs, and pizza. Fewer cravings and aversions were noted during the first year postpartum. No significant relationship existed between craving and aversions and belief scores. Adolescents craving sweets during pregnancy consumed more sugar and energy than those who did not crave sweets. Cravings generally resulted in increased intake, and aversions led to decreased food consumption. On the basis of these results, we suggest that nutritional assessment of pregnant adolescents include questions about cravings and aversions.     

Perimenstrual chocolate craving. What happens after menopause?

About half of American women crave chocolate, and approximately half of the cravers crave it specifically around the onset of menstruation. This study examines whether the primary cause of this “perimenstrual” craving is a direct effect of hormonal changes around the perimenstrum, or rather if the craving is a general response in some individuals to stress or other notable events. Insofar as there is a direct hormonal effect, one would predict a substantial decrease of 38% in total chocolate craving in women post-menopause, corresponding to the proportion of women pre-menopause who report craving chocolate exclusively perimenstrually. Based on a survey of pre- and post-menopausal alumnae of the same University, we report a significant but small decrease in prevalence of chocolate cravings post-menopause. The decrease is only 13.4% and thereby much smaller than a 38% drop predicted by a purely hormonal explanation, suggesting that female reproductive hormones are not the principal cause of perimenstrual chocolate craving.     

Body mass index moderates gaze orienting biases and pupil diameter to high and low calorie food images

The primary goal of this study was to examine eye gaze behavior to different kinds of food images in individuals differing in BMI status. Eye-tracking methods were used to examine gaze and pupil responses while normal weight and overweight women freely viewed pairs of different food images: high calorie sweet foods, high calorie savory foods, and low calorie foods. Self-report measures of hunger, state and trait cravings, and restrained eating were also obtained. Results revealed orienting biases to low calorie foods and decreases in pupil diameter to high calorie sweet foods relative to low calorie foods in the overweight group. Groups did not differ in the average amount of time spent gazing at the different image types. Furthermore, increased state cravings were associated with larger pupil diameters to high calorie savory foods, especially in individuals with lower BMIs. In contrast, restrained eating scores were associated with a decreased orienting bias to high calorie sweet foods in the high BMI group. In conclusion, BMI status appears to influence gaze parameters that are less susceptible to cognitive control. Results suggest that overweight individuals, especially those who diet, have negative implicit attitudes toward high calorie foods, especially sweets.     

Chocolate craving and the menstrual cycle

Spanish and American female chocolate cravers reported the usual times when they craved chocolate by answering an open-ended question. They also were asked directly if they craved chocolate perimenstrually. American women (40% open-ended, 60% direct) were more likely than were Spanish women (4% open-ended, 24% direct) to report that their chocolate cravings occurred perimenstrually when responding to both questions. The most frequently reported times (other than perimenstrually) that chocolate was craved were the same for Spanish men and women (after eating, studying) and for American men and women (evening), differing cross-culturally but not across gender. The results suggest a cultural origin rather than a physiological basis for chocolate craving.     

Chocolate craving and liking.

Liking and craving for chocolate and related substances were surveyed in a sample of University of Pennsylvania undergraduates (n = 249) and their parents (n = 319). Chocolate was highly liked in all groups, with a stronger liking by females. Chocolate is the most craved food among females, and is craved by almost half of the female sample (in both age groups). Although this craving is related to a sweet craving, it cannot be accounted for as a craving for sweets. About half of the female cravers show a very well defined craving peak for chocolate in the perimenstrual period, beginning from a few days before the onset of menses and extending into the first few days of menses. There is not a significant relation in chocolate craving or liking between parents and their children. The current motivation for chocolate preference seems to be primarily, if not entirely, sensory. Liking for chocolate correlates significantly with liking for sweets and white chocolate. The liking for the sensory properties could originate in innate or acquired liking based on the sweetness, texture and aroma of chocolate, or it could be based in part on interactions between the postingestional effects of chocolate and a person's state (e.g., mood, hormone levels). Based on correlational data, we find little evidence for a relation between addiction to chocolate or the pharmacological (e.g., xanthine-based) effects of chocolate and the liking for chocolate.     

Dieting and food craving. A descriptive, quasi-prospective study

Evidence linking food restriction and food craving is equivocal. This study investigated whether dieting was associated with a greater frequency of food craving. Dieting to lose weight was distinguished from watching so as not to gain weight. Participants were 129 women (mean age=41 yrs): 52 were currently dieting to lose weight, 40 were watching their weight, and 37 were non-dieters. They completed a food craving record after every food craving, a food diary, and a daily mood assessment over 7-days. Of the 393 craving incidents recorded, dieters experienced significantly more food cravings than non-dieters, with watchers intermediate. Chocolate was the most craved food (37% of cravings) but neither the types of food, the proportion of cravings leading to eating (～70%), the situations in which cravings occurred, nor the time since the last eating episode differed between groups. Compared with non-dieters, dieters experienced stronger cravings that were more difficult to resist, and for foods they were restricting eating. Watchers showed similarities in experience both to dieters (low hunger) and non-dieters (lower craving intensity). These results support an association between dieting and food craving, the usefulness of distinguishing dieting to lose weight and watching, and suggest a need for further experimental investigation of actual food restriction on food craving experiences.     

Menstrual cycle and food cravings in young college women

The effect of the menstrual cycle on food cravings was examined in a population of 83 young college women during a 6-week longitudinal study. Food cravings and menstrual symptoms were evaluated by measuring subject responses in weekly questionnaires ("craving sheets"). The women were not told that the central objective of the study was to examine the effects of the menstrual cycle on food cravings. The menstrual cycle was divided into four stages: menstrual flow; the first half of the cycle, excluding menstrual flow; the second half of the cycle, excluding the premenstrual phase; and 1 week premenstrual. Cravings for 32 foods were examined on a weekly basis under controlled environmental conditions. Foods tested were categorized according to common characteristics. The women exhibited a greater preference for chocolate foods during menstrual flow than during the other menstrual stages. Cravings for high-sugar foods, high-starch foods, or lower carbohydrate foods were not significantly affected by the stage of the menstrual cycle.     

Effects of 12-week aerobic exercise on cue-induced drug craving in methamphetamine-dependent patients and the moderation effect of working memory

ObjectiveTo explore the effect of 12-week aerobic exercise of varying intensity on cue-induced drug craving in methamphetamine (MA)-dependent patients and how this effect may be moderated or mediated by changes in cognitive function.MethodFifty-seven MA-dependent patients were randomly divided into three groups. Two exercise groups were engaged in a 12-week exercise program that involved three 30-min sessions per week of moderate- or high-intensity aerobic exercise on a cycle ergometer. The control group maintained daily life in a drug rehabilitation center for 12 weeks. Inhibitory control, working memory, and cue-induced drug craving were assessed before and after the intervention via Stroop task, 2-back task and visual analogue scale, respectively.ResultsA 12-week program of high-, but not medium-, intensity aerobic exercise significantly reduced cue-induced drug craving and improved working memory performance, while did not improve inhibitory control. Multiple linear regressions revealed that the effects of aerobic exercise on cue-induced drug craving were moderated by working memory.ConclusionsHigh-intensity aerobic exercise could be used to reduce cue-induced drug cravings of MA-dependent patients while also providing benefits in working memory. For patients with improved working memory, 12-week aerobic exercise can significantly reduce cue-induced drug craving, and the higher the exercise intensity, the greater the decrease in craving. These results suggest that appropriate high-intensity exercise would be a positive tool to promote drug rehabilitation for patients without any physical or medical conditions, and the improvement of working memory is important for exercise-induced effects.     

Non-food odorants reduce chocolate cravings

The present study compared the relative effectiveness of simple, commercially available food and non-food olfactory tasks on chocolate craving reduction. Chocolate cravings were induced by a series of coloured photographs and 67 undergraduate women were asked to smell one of three odours (green apple, jasmine, or water). The non-food odorant (jasmine) significantly reduced chocolate cravings relative to both the food and control odorants. Thus simple non-food odorants offer potential scope as a technique for curbing unwanted food cravings.