Widespread occurrence of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (Pfcrt) gene haplotype SVMNT in P. falciparum malaria in India

The Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (Pfcrt) K76T mutation and haplotype (amino acids 72-76) and the P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 (Pfmdr1) mutation (N86Y) were analyzed as markers of chloroquine resistance in the DNAs of 73 blood samples from patients with P. falciparum malaria in India. Seventy of the 73 DNAs had the Pfcrt K76T mutation. Of these, 66 had the SVMNT haplotype and four had CVIET, the African/Southeast Asian haplotype. Only 20 of 69 DNAs had the Pfmdr1 N86Y mutation. It is surprising that the Pfcrt haplotype in India is predominantly SVMNT, rather than that seen in Southeast Asia. The widespread prevalence of the Pfcrt K76T mutation is a cause for concern.     

New haplotypes of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) gene among chloroquine-resistant parasite isolates

Mutations in the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) gene were examined to assess their associations with chloroquine resistance in clinical samples from Armopa (Papua) and Papua New Guinea. In Papua, two of the five pfcrt haplotypes found were new: SVIET from Armopa and CVIKT from an isolate in Timika. There was also a strong association (P < 0.0001) between the pfcrt 76T allele and chloroquine resistance in 50 samples. In Papua New Guinea, mutations in the pfcrt gene were observed in 15 isolates with chloroquine minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 16-64 pmol, while the remaining six isolates, which had a wild-type pfcrt gene at codon 76, had MICs of 2-8 pmol. These observations confirm that mutations at codon 76 in the pfcrt gene are present in both in vivo and in vitro cases of chloroquine resistance, and that detection of the pfcrt 76T allele could predict potential chloroquine treatment failures.     

中缅边境恶性疟原虫Pfcrt基因76位点突变研究

目的 检测分析中缅边境恶性疟原虫氯喹抗性基因(pfcrt)及其76位点氨基酸的突变情况。方法 采用巢式PCR方法扩增含76位点的pfcrt基因,并对扩增产物进行限制性内切酶及测序分析。结果 对恶性疟现症病人血样作pfcrt基因的巢式PCR扩增,目的基因片段(145 bp)检出率为74.05%(117/158),对PCR扩增阳性的产物进行RELP分析,检查突变型酶切片段,突变率为95.73%(112/117)。 结论 恶性疟原虫pfcrt基因可以作为一个分子标记用于监测中缅边境地区恶性疟原虫的氯喹抗性。     

Efficacy of chloroquine, sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine and amodiaquine for treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Kajo Keji county, Sudan

To provide advice on the rational use of antimalarial drugs, Médecins Sans Frontières conducted a randomized, an open label efficacy study in Kajo Keji, an area of high transmission of malaria in southern Sudan. The efficacy of chloroquine (CQ), sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) and amodiaquine (AQ) were measured in a 28-day in vivo study, with results corrected by PCR genotyping. Of 2010 children screened, 115 children aged 6-59 months with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria were randomized into each group to receive a supervised course of treatment. Of these, 114, 103 and 111 were analysed in the CQ, SP and AQ groups, respectively. The overall parasitological failure rates at day 28 were 93.9% [95% confidence interval (CI) 87.3-97.3] for CQ, 69.9% (95% CI 60.0-78.3) for SP, and 25.2% (95% CI 17.7-34.5) for AQ. These results provide important missing data on antimalarial drug efficacy in southern Sudan. They indicate that none of the drugs could be used in monotherapy and suggest that even in combination with artemisinin, cure rates might not be efficacious enough. We recommend a combination of artemether and lumefantrine as first-line treatment for uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria cases in Kajo Keji county.     

pfcrt is more than the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance gene: a functional and evolutionary perspective

Genetic, physiological and pharmacological studies are gradually revealing the molecular basis of chloroquine resistance (CQR) in the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Recent highlights include the discovery of a key gene associated with resistance, pfcrt (Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter; PfCRT), encoding a novel transporter, and the characterization of global selective sweeps of haplotypes containing a K76T amino acid change within this protein. Little is known about the cellular mechanism by which resistant parasites escape the effects of chloroquine (CQ), one of the most promising drugs ever deployed, due in part to an unresolved mechanism of action. The worldwide spread of CQR argues that investigations into these mechanisms are of little value. We propose, to the contrary, that the reconstruction of the evolutionary and molecular events underlying CQR is important at many levels, including: (i) its potential to assist in the development of rational approaches to thwart future drug resistances; (ii) the stimulation of the use of CQ-like compounds in drug combinations for new therapeutic approaches; and (iii) the consideration of how the CQ-selected genome will function as the context in which current and future drugs will act, particularly in light of the many reports of multidrug resistance. The purpose of this review is to highlight, discuss and in some cases challenge the interpretations of recent findings on CQR. We consider the natural function of the PfCRT protein, the role of multiple genes and “genetic background” in the CQR mechanism, and the evolution of CQR in parasite populations. Genetic transformation techniques are improving in P. falciparum and continue to provide important insight into CQR. Here, we also discuss more subtle, yet important pharmacological approaches that may have been overlooked in a traditional “gene for drug resistance” way of thinking.     

用pfcrt点突变基因检测技术检测恶性疟原虫氯喹抗药性的初步研究

目的　建立一种恶性疟原虫氯喹抗药性基因pfcrt点突变的检测方法,以判断是否存在氯喹抗药性。方法　根据恶性疟原虫pfcrt基因序列设计巢式PCR引物,以恶性疟原虫DNA为模板扩增出一条包含第76位密码子的DNA片段;扩增产物经限制性内切酶Apo I消化,用琼脂糖凝胶电泳观察恶性疟原虫pfcrt等位基因是否为突变型。结果　31份样本经巢式PCR扩增均出现14 0 bp左右的特异性片段。酶切消化后,9份滤纸血样本中有4例出现1条14 0 bp左右的片段,为突变型pfcrt等位基因,其余5份出现97bp与4 8bp两种酶切片段,为野生型pfcrt等位基因;2 2份血涂片样本中有10份突变型,突变率为4 5 .16 %。14例突变样本中,有1例体内实验氯喹治疗有效。结论　巢式PCR- RFL P法可以快速、高效的检测恶性疟原虫pfcrt基因76位密码子的点突变,并且能够初步应用于恶性疟原虫氯喹抗药性的鉴别。     

Prevalence of the K76T mutation in the putative Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) gene and its relation to chloroquine resistance in Mozambique

K76T, a mutation in the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine (CQ) resistance transporter protein, has been implicated in resistance to CQ. A modified 14-day in vivo test to estimate the CQ resistance level was done in southern Mozambique: 21 (42%) of 50 subjects who completed the follow-up were CQ susceptible. Use of msa2-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) genotyping to differentiate new from recrudescent infections made little difference in the estimated prevalence of resistance. The K76T mutation prevalence was estimated by RFLP-polymerase chain reaction and sequencing, and its relation to parasitological CQ resistance was explored on day 0 samples: 51 of 56 pretreatment samples presented the T76 codon, and it was present in 100% of children with parasitological resistance. T76 also was present in 18 of 23 subjects in whom the infection resolved after CQ treatment. These findings show a high prevalence of the K76T mutation among wild isolates but also suggest additional factors responsible for CQ resistance.     

Plasmodium falciparum: correlation of in vivo resistance to chloroquine and antifolates with genetic polymorphisms in isolates from the south of Lao PDR

Levels of drug resistance of Plasmodium falciparum strains against antimalarials have increased in Laos. In several studies, chloroquine (CQ) resistance has been associated with point mutations in the Pfcrt and pfmdr genes, and sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine (S/P) resistance with point mutations in the genes of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) and dihydropteroate synthetase (DHPS). We combined a study of these molecular markers with an in vivo antimalarial drug sensitivity study in Attapeu province in the south of Lao PDR. We treated 100 patients with either CQ, S/P or a combination of both. In the CQ group, Pfcrt mutations showed a very high sensitivity (100%) but a low specificity (12.5%) to predict resistance. The combination of mutations in the Pfcrt and pfmdr genes was highly specific and had a positive predictive value of 100%. Mutations in the DHPS gene showed a high correlation with the development of resistance. The prevalence of mutations in the DHFR gene, especially codon 108 Asn, was predictive with high sensitivity (100%) but low specificity. Isolates derived from patients treated with a combination of both drugs showed a high correlation between the mutation in codon 437 of DHPS gene and in vivo-resistance (odds ratio 16.00, CI). The study provides evidence for the existence of antimalarial drug resistance in the south of Lao PDR, and offers a molecular method to predict resistance.     

Chloroquine-resistance molecular markers (Pfcrt T76 and Pfmdr-1 Y86) and amodiaquine resistance in Burkina Faso

We investigated the relationship between the two main molecular markers for chloroquine resistance (Pfcrt T76 and Pfmdr-1 Y86) and the clinical efficacy of amodiaquine in Burkina Faso. Before treatment, the prevalence of Pfcrt T76, Pfmdr-1 Y86 or both mutations in the same infection was significantly higher in patients who experienced a recrudescence than in those who successfully responded to the treatment. Therefore, these two molecular markers could be useful in monitoring amodiaquine resistance, particularly in countries where this drug is used in combination with artesunate as first- or second-line treatment.     

Distribution pattern of Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine transporter (pfcrt) gene haplotypes in Sri Lanka 1996-2006

Widespread antimalarial resistance has been a barrier to malaria elimination efforts in Sri Lanka. Analysis of genetic markers in historic parasites may uncover trends in the spread of resistance. We examined the frequency of Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine transporter (pfcrt; codons 72-76) haplotypes in Sri Lanka in 1996-1998 and 2004-2006 using a high-resolution melting assay. Among 59 samples from 1996 to 1998, we detected the SVMNT (86%), CVMNK (10%), and CVIET (2%) haplotypes, with a positive trend in SVMNT and a negative trend in CVMNK frequency (P = 0.004) over time. Among 24 samples from 2004 to 2006, we observed only the SVMNT haplotype. This finding indicates selection for the SVMNT haplotype over time and its possible fixation in the population.     

Therapeutic efficacy of chloroquine plus sulphadoxine/ pyrimethamine compared with monotherapy with either chloroquine or sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine in uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Laos

In a southern border province of Lao PDR, we compared the efficacy of antimalarial drug combinations in patients aged >or=1 year with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria: monotherapy with either mefloquine (MQ), chloroquine (CQ), or sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine (SP) vs. the combination of both CQ and SP. Follow-up time was 14 days. Of 265 P. falciparum positive patients, 119 were enrolled in the drug trial. Significantly more patients treated with CQ than with SP developed early or late treatment failure [44.8%vs. 17.9%, relative risk (RR) = 2.51, 95% CI 1.03-6.12]. In the SP group, 82.1% were sensitive and 17.9% were treatment failures. The combination treatment CQ plus SP resulted in 83.3% sensitivity and 16.7% treatment failures. Combination treatment has no advantage over monotherapy with SP (RR = 1.01, 95% CI 0.8-1.3). All patients who received MQ for treatment (total dose 25 mg/kg) were cured within the 14 days of follow-up. The findings of this study suggest that use of CQ as first-line treatment of uncomplicated malaria in the Lao PDR has to be reconsidered. The combination of both CQ and SP has been discussed as a cost-effective alternative treatment, but in our patient population achieved no better results than single therapy with SP.     

High-level chloroquine resistance in Sudanese isolates of Plasmodium falciparum is associated with mutations in the chloroquine resistance transporter gene pfcrt and the multidrug resistance Gene pfmdr1

Polymorphisms were examined in 2 Plasmodium falciparum genes, as were chloroquine responses of clones and isolates from a village in eastern Sudan. There was a significant association between an allele of the P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter gene (pfcrt-T76) and both in vitro and in vivo resistance. There was a less significant association with the multidrug resistance gene pfmdr1-Y86 allele. A significant association between pfmdr1-Y86 and pfcrt-T76 was apparent among resistant isolates, which suggests a joint action of the 2 genes in high-level chloroquine resistance.     

输入性恶性疟原虫耐药相关基因Pfcrt和Pfmdr1单倍型及突变分析

目的了解目前山东省输入性恶性疟原虫抗药性基因Pfcrt和Pfmdr1的单倍型,分析突变基因型及其分布情况。方法根据恶性疟原虫Pfcrt和Pfmdr1基因序列设计套式PCR引物,对采自全省非洲务工返乡的输入性恶性疟感染者血样扩增,并对其产物进行基因测序和序列对比分析。结果 68例样本Pfcrt基因第72~76位点和Pfmdr1基因第86、1 042和1 246位点目的片段全部成功扩增和测序。Pfcrt基因中69.12%为野生单倍型CVMNK,30.88%为突变单倍型,突变型包括CVIET、CVIDT及混合型,其中CVIET数量最多。Pfmdr1基因中69.12%为野生单倍型NND,30.88%为突变单倍型,即YND及混合基因型。6个非洲输入来源国样本中,除几内亚Pfcrt基因全部为野生型外,其它国家Pfcrt和Pfmdr1基因均有突变型存在。5例样本Pfcrt和Pfmdr1基因共同表现为突变单倍型。结论山东省输入性恶性疟Pfcrt和Pfmdr1基因突变单倍型具有多样化特征。Pfcrt和Pfmdr1突变型比例均低于野生型,提示目前该省流行的输入性恶性疟未出现严重的氯喹耐药性。     

Chloroquine resistance of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Ethiopia and Eritrea

We report on the first 2 years of operation of a new strategy for treatment for P. falciparum malaria patients who were not cured by a standard course of chloroquine. Any such patient who returned to a malaria treatment and detection post within 2 weeks was treated daily under supervision with chloroquine. Patients whose parasitaemia had not decreased below 25% of the initial level by day 3 or cleared completely by day 7 were given sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine (Fansidar). Of 39 824 patients treated initially with chloroquine, 4% returned to the malaria post within 2 weeks of treatment; 87% of these were chloroquine resistant and treated with Fansidar and 28% of the returning patients were RIII resistant. Resistance was associated with geographical area, initial parasite density and age. Earlier studies had shown resistance to be confined to border areas, but we found that it was highest in the centre of the region, notably in the lowlands of the Shewa and Arsi provinces, and lowest in the west. Although imported cases have been held responsible for the development of resistance in border areas, other factors are likely to be important in the middle of the region. The implications of these findings for a treatment policy of P. falciparum malaria in the region are discussed.     

恶性疟原虫海南分离株pfcrt基因同氯喹抗性的相关性分析

目的探讨恶性疟原虫海南株pfcrt基因多态性同氯喹抗性的关系。方法采集确诊恶性疟患者血样42份，应用套式PCR方法体外扩增pfcrt基因含有编码第76和356位氨基酸的基因片段，并对扩增产物进行限制性酶切分析。结果1）76位点：22个氯喹抗性虫株中有18个发生K76T突变型（81．82％），20个氯喹敏感虫株中野生型和突变型各占50％；2）356位点：所有42个样本的356位点均为野生型。结论我国海南省恶性疟原虫pfort基因的K76T突变与氯喹抗性存在一定关联，而356位点可能与氯喹抗性无关。     

Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter is a H+-coupled polyspecific nutrient and drug exporter

Extrusion of chloroquine (CQ) from digestive vacuoles through the Plasmodium falciparum CQ resistance transporter (PfCRT) is essential to establish CQ resistance of the malaria parasite. However, the physiological relevance of PfCRT and how CQ-resistant PfCRT gains the ability to transport CQ remain unknown. We prepared proteoliposomes containing purified CQ-sensitive and CQ-resistant PfCRTs and measured their transport activities. All PfCRTs tested actively took up tetraethylammonium, verapamil, CQ, basic amino acids, polypeptides, and polyamines at the expense of an electrochemical proton gradient. CQ-resistant PfCRT exhibited decreased affinity for CQ, resulting in increased CQ uptake. Furthermore, CQ competitively inhibited amino acid transport. Thus, PfCRT is a H⁺-coupled polyspecific nutrient and drug exporter.Malaria caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity in humans worldwide (1). Chloroquine (CQ) was initially a highly effective drug against this devastating disease (2). However, resistant strains of P. falciparum began to appear around 1950, and today practically all of the parasites are resistant to CQ (3–7). This has become a major threat to global public health. Extensive research identified a CQ transporter, P. falciparum CQ resistance transporter (PfCRT), which functions in resistant but not wild-type strains of the parasite (2, 8–14). The mutant transporter is expressed in the membranes of its digestive vacuoles (DV), excreting CQ from the vacuole and thus conferring resistance (15, 16). The decrease in intravesicular CQ concentration also promotes conversion of highly toxic hematin to hemozoin, generating resistance to other antimalarial drugs in addition to CQ (2, 9, 17–23). Therefore, it is important to clarify the transport mechanism of PfCRT to overcome drug resistance in malaria parasites (2, 9–11). However, the role of CQ-sensitive PfCRT transport under physiological conditions and how CQ-resistant PfCRT gains the ability to transport CQ remain unclear.Addressing the physiological relevance of PfCRT is a major issue in the area of infectious diseases. Attempts to obtain PfCRT-defective P. falciparum have been unsuccessful, suggesting that PfCRT is involved in DV transport processes that are essential for the parasites (2, 9). As CQ is a divalent amine that can freely penetrate through lipid membranes in its neutral form, but becomes impermeable upon protonation, we hypothesized that PfCRT recognizes amphipathic amines as transport substrates and acts as a polyspecific organic cation transporter. Similar to the vacuoles of yeasts and plants, the DV of the malaria parasite establishes a proton motive force or an electrochemical gradient of protons across the membrane as the sum of interior acidic pH gradient (ΔpH) and inside-positive membrane potentials (Δψ) by electrogenic proton pumps, vacuolar H⁺-ATPase, and vacuolar H⁺-pyrophosphatase to supply energy to secondary active transporters (23–27). Therefore, we also hypothesized that PfCRT may use the electrochemical gradient of protons as a driving force for transport.Recently, we have developed a transporter assay system that includes overexpression, purification, and reconstitution of eukaryotic transporters (28–30). The assay system enables us to study the mechanisms of action of transporters under defined ΔpH and Δψ. In the present study, we applied this technique to PfCRT to determine the transport properties of CQ-sensitive and CQ-resistant PfCRTs.     

Molecular analysis of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum in Yunnan Province, China

Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine (CQ) is determined by the mutation at K76T of the P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) gene and modified by other mutations in this gene and in the P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 (pfmdr1) gene. To determine the extent of polymorphisms in these genes in field P. falciparum isolates from Yunnan province of China, we genotyped the pfcrt codon 76, pfmdr1 codons 86 and 1246. Our results showed that although CQ has been withdrawn from treating falciparum malaria for over two decades, 90.3% of the parasites still carried the pfcrt K76T mutation. In contrast, mutations at pfmdr1 codons 86 and 1246 were rare. Sequencing analysis of the pfcrt gene in 34 parasite field isolates revealed CVIET at positions 72-76 as the major type, consistent with the theory of Southeast Asian origin of CQ resistance in the parasite. In addition, two novel pfcrt haplotypes (75D/144Y/220A and 75E/144Y/220A) were identified. Real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to determine pfmdr1 gene amplification, which is associated with mefloquine resistance. Our result indicated that in agreement with that mefloquine has not been used in this area, most (>90%) of the parasites had one pfmdr1 copy. Genotyping at two hypervariable loci showed relatively low levels of genetic diversity of the parasite population. Meanwhile, 28.4% of cases were found to contain mixed clones, which favour genetic recombination. Furthermore, despite a unique history of antimalarial drugs in Yunnan, its geographical connections with three malarious countries facilitate gene flow among parasite populations and evolution of novel drug-resistant genotypes. Therefore, continuous surveillance of drug resistance in this area is necessary for timely adjustment of local drug policies and more effective malaria control.     

Occurrence of the Southeast Asian/South American SVMNT haplotype of the chloroquine-resistance transporter gene in Plasmodium falciparum in Tanzania

Two main haplotypes, CVIET and SVMNT, of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine-resistance transporter gene (Pfcrt) are linked to 4-aminoquinoline resistance. The CVIET haplotype has been reported in most malaria-endemic regions, whereas the SVMNT haplotype has only been found outside Africa. We investigated Pfcrt haplotype frequencies in Korogwe District, Tanzania, in 2003 and 2004. The SVMNT haplotype was not detected in 2003 but was found in 19% of infected individuals in 2004. Amodiaquine use has increased in the region. The introduction and high prevalence of the SVMNT haplotype may reflect this and may raise concern regarding the use of amodiaquine in artemisinin-based combination therapies in Africa.     

Molecular epidemiology of malaria in Cameroon. XIV. Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (PFCRT) gene sequences of isolates before and after chloroquine treatment

Laboratory studies have strongly suggested that the gene coding for Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (PFCRT) may play a determinant role in chloroquine resistance. A clinical study in Mali also found evidence for selection of the key PFCRT amino acid substitution, Lys76Thr, in patients who fail to respond to chloroquine treatment. To test the hypothesis that in vivo selection of mutant PFCRT alleles occurs after chloroquine treatment, PFCRT and merozoite surface antigen 2 (msa-2) polymorphisms were compared between 61 pretreatment and posttreatment paired samples from children with either clinical or parasitologic failure. There were six wild-type PFCRT alleles, 44 mutant alleles, and 11 mixed alleles among pretreatment isolates. All posttreatment parasites had mutant PFCRT alleles. Recrudescence accounted for 42 of 61 posttreatment infections, while 19 posttreatment infections were due to new infection (including all isolates with Lys-76 before treatment and Thr-76 after treatment). Seven pretreatment isolates with mixed PFCRT alleles had only Thr-76 on recrudescence, providing a direct evidence for in vivo selection for mutant PFCRT. Although the presence of mutant PFCRT alleles in pretreatment isolates is not predictive of chloroquine treatment failure, our data support the hypothesis that in vivo selection for recrudescent parasites carrying mutant PFCRT alleles occurs. These results may have important implications for the future surveillance of chloroquine resistance by the use of molecular markers.     

Factors associated with regional bias of pfcrt (plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter) haplotypes in Nepal

Evidences of reappearance of chloroquine sensitive Plasmodium falciparum haplotypes after cessation of chloroquine in many countries provide a rationale for the search of chloroquine sensitive haplotypes in P. falciparum isolates in Nepal where the use of chloroquine for falciparum malaria treatment has been ceased since 1988. P. falciparum chloroquine resistant transporter gene (pfcrt) haplotypes were determined and the factors associated with pfcrt haplotypes in the Eastern and Central regions of Nepal were identified. Blood samples from 106 microscopy-positive falciparum malaria patients (62 from the Eastern and 44 from the Central region) were collected on filter paper. Pfcrt region covering codons 72-76 was amplified by PCR and sequenced. SVMNT haplotype was predominant in the Central region, whereas CVIET haplotype significantly more common in the Eastern region. In multivariable analysis of factors associated with CVIET haplotype, the Eastern region and parasite isolates from patients visiting India within one month are significant at 5% level of significance. These findings suggest that antimalarial pressure is different between Eastern and Central regions of Nepal and there is a need of an effective malaria control program in the border areas between India and Nepal.