一种高效的光线投射体绘制优化算法

目的针对传统光线投射体绘制算法绘制速度慢,绘制图像有木纹效应的问题,提出一种高效的光线投射体绘制优化算法,消除绘制图像的木纹效应,同时提高体绘制的速度。方法采用预积分分类方法避免采样频率对传递函数的依赖,消除光线投射体绘制产生的木纹效应,利用平行线切割投射光线的数学特性实现高效的插值方法,提高体绘制的速度。利用图像的均方误差MSE和峰值信噪比PSNR评价图像的质量。结果本文的优化算法不但能够消除图像的木纹效应,而且使体绘制速度提高2.4倍以上。结论本文的光线投射体绘制优化算法能抑制图像的木纹效应,得到高质量图像,并且提高体绘制的速度。     

采用半透明效果实现医学三维整体可视化

目的通过改进直接体绘制技术（DVR）算法中的关键步骤，绘制能表达数据场中不同层次组织的内部结构。方法根据界面对光线的反射和物质本身对光线的衰减，将数据场划分为边界不丰富的简单数据场和边界丰富的复杂数据场，从而采用分段线性函数来构造阻光度传递函数（TF）；将数据场中低灰度体素点看为一种不发光但会导致采样光线衰减的物质；根据采样结束时采样光线的阻光度分布来调整TF，完成三维绘制。结果绘制出了不同层次组织的内部结构。结论本算法有效地解决了体素点相互遮挡的问题，实现了医学三维整体可视化。     

医学体视化的三维旋转绘制法

目的 实现三维医学图像数据场的快速旋转体绘制。方法 由源一衰减模型、朗伯漫反射余弦定律和Phong镜面反射模型，推导出计算数据场中每一点的不透明度和明暗度的计算公式,通过旋转光源和视点,来自不同观察方向的感兴趣结构的体绘图被满意地生成。结果 通过对人体头部CT图像数据场进行三维旋转绘制，结果比较理想。结论 由于不需要对整个数据场进行分类和旋转，该方法具有速度快、所需内存少和绘制质量高的特点，是一种较好的医学体视化方法。     

基于有序体数据的体绘制方法

目的 体绘制是三维可视化的有效方法，但是它处理的数据量巨大。本文提出一种称为有序体数据的空间数据结构，它可以有效地加速体绘制而对图像质量没有影响。方法 在体绘制前，将每个体数据的每个层片编码成以体素值为序的有序数组。依据不透明度函数可确定出不透明体素所对应的体素值范围。通过对有序数组的截取，可快速地定位不透明体素，而跳过所有透明的体素。该算法的优点是在不透明度函数改变后无需重新生成有序体数据，方便体绘制中的交互，快速地绘制出结果图片。结果 在典型的PC机上验证了上述算法，对于CT头部体数据，绘制时间不大于1s，绘制速度达到了临床诊断的要求。结论 基于有序体数据的体绘制方法思路简洁，易于实现，不受透明度变换函数的约束，显著提高了绘制速度，而且不影响图象的质量。     

基于PC机的医学图像三维表面重建

目的：利用CT，MR等获得的图像，重构出器官、骨骼或组织的三维形体，帮助医生诊断、治疗或制订手术方案。方法：Shear-Warp算法通过将三维数据场的投影分解为错切变换（shear)和变形变换（warp)两步来实现三维重建，显著减少了计算量，先对体数据进行错切变换，然后在错切空间根据阈值法获取三维表面，根据光照模型得到三维表面的亮度，最后通过变形变换得到最终的结果图像，结果：提出了一种基于Shear-Warp投影原理快速显示三维表面的直接重建算法。结论：与其他表面重建算法比较，这种算法不需要预处理，重建过程中不必生成中间数据，在无硬件加速的条件下，能在普通微机上实现医学图像的快速三维表面重建。     

多平面经食管旋转扫描超声心动图像的三维重建

目的 进行经食管旋转扫描超声心动图像的三维重建算法的基础研究,并开发相应三维重建软件系统。方法 首先,使用食管导入旋转扫描超声成像技术获得一系列在空间按一定角度分布的动态超声心脏图像,并同步记录心电信号。然后,根据心电及角度信号提取正确原始切片图像,进行预处理,并利用三维直接匹配插值方法对旋转扫描超声心动图像进行插值,获得规则体数据。最后,采用直接体绘制方法对体数据进行重建。结果 实现了全部重建算法,并对一组旋转扫描超声心动图像进行了三维重建实验,获得了左心室的真实感三维重建图像。结论 由于经食管扫描超声心动图像原始质量较好,并且本研究中采用了针对超声图像自身特点的图像预处理和三维直接插值方法,使得我们可以获得高质量的超声心脏体数据,从而获得良好的重建结果。     

基于PC机的虚拟内窥镜成像算法

目的对现有的虚拟内窥镜成像方法进行改进 ,使之能够在PC机上运行。方法传统算法在观察点位置变化时 ,应先对所有原始体数据进行三维坐标变换后再作透视投影 ,本文算法只对被观察的那部分数据进行处理 ,减少不必要的坐标变换 ,并将坐标变换、表面检测、透视投影等紧密结合 ,在一次光线跟踪过程中完成这些计算以减小计算量 ;直接对原始体数据进行投影 ,无需先对体数据进行插值 ,因此不用保留插值的中间结果 ,减少了内存消耗 ;在成像过程中自动排除与成像结果无关的数据 ,使它们不参与插值 ,不参与投影 ,进一步提高了计算速度。结果设计出基于PC机的虚拟内窥镜系统 ,并用大小为 5 1 2× 5 1 2的CT图片 ,绘制了胸部气管的内窥图像 ,以验证本文算法的有效性。结论所提出的算法能够在PC机上实现 ,有助于虚拟内窥镜系统的推广应用     

应用于医学图像可视化的一种新的法向量估计算法

目的 法向量估计算法是三维可视化中的一个关键环节。常用的法向量算法采用差分法与插值函数相结合计算数据场中任意点的法向量。方法 本文介绍的法向量计算方法用二次多项式拟合体数据场，采用最小二乘法，通过求解线性方程组确定多项式系数，进而计算法向量。利用方程系数矩阵的对称性，可以简化求解过程。结果 通过对各种算法的准确性与处理时间的比较，表明该方法能明显提高重建图像的质量同时并没有增加计算复杂度。结论 该方法适用于大部分数据场特别是医学图像数据场的法向量估计。     

三维人体模拟内窥的实验研究

目的 对三维人体虚拟内窥系统进行初步的实验研究。方法 建立了虚拟摄像机几何模型和定位方法,根据人体的三维影像数据,以不同分辨率对虚拟人体进行不同角度的观察。并对虚拟内窥镜的观察结果用光线跟踪方法检测表面和三线性插值方法绘制表面图。结果 实现虚拟内窥结果的可视化,研制出基于微机的虚拟内窥系统和对三维人体影像数据虚拟内窥的结果。结论 虚拟内窥是实现医学虚拟诊断、虚拟治疗和虚拟教学的很有前任的手段之一。     

三维人体虚拟内窥的实验研究

目的对三维人体虚拟内窥系统进行初步的实验研究。方法建立了虚拟摄像机几何模型和定位方法,根据人体的三维影像数据,以不同分辨率对虚拟人体进行不同角度的观察。并对虚拟内窥镜的观察结果用光线跟踪方法检测表面和用三线性插值方法绘制表面图。结果实现虚拟内窥结果的可视化,研制出基于微机的虚拟内窥系统和对三维人体影像数据虚拟内窥的结果。结论虚拟内窥是实现医学虚拟诊断、虚拟治疗和虚拟教学的很有前途的手段之一     

Using kriging for 3d medical imaging

We describe our implementation of kriging for interpolation of scalar values in three-dimensional medical image surface rendering and for slice interpolation. Kriging is an interpolation technique developed in the geosciences for estimating ore deposit spatial distributions. Kriging has been mathematically proven to be the best (statistically optimal) linear unbiased estimation technique for spatially distributed data. As a byproduct of the kriging technique, kriging can calculate the estimation error for the interslice interpolated values. Kriging also offers the potential for quantifying the interpolation error in slices computed by the estimation technique. This paper presents the initial results obtained using kriging for the pre-processing operations of slice interpolation by slice-value interpolation and interpolating voxel values during iso-surface extraction. We found that kriging is an accurate interpolation technique for surface rendering and for slice interpolation. Our results indicate that kriging can duplicate the rendering results obtained with other interpolation techniques and it offers the potential for providing visually “better” images than are obtained using the other interpolation techniques we tested.     

A new adaptive interpolation algorithm for 3D ultrasound imaging with speckle reduction and edge preservation

Conventional interpolation algorithms for reconstructing freehand three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound data always contain speckle noises and artifacts. This paper describes a new algorithm for reconstructing regular voxel arrays with reduced speckles and preserved edges. To study speckle statistics properties including mean and variance in sequential B-mode images in 3D space, experiments were conducted on an ultrasound resolution phantom and real human tissues. In the volume reconstruction, the homogeneity of the neighborhood for each voxel was evaluated according to the local variance/mean of neighboring pixels. If a voxel was locating in a homogeneous region, its neighboring pixels were averaged as the interpolation output. Otherwise, the size of the voxel neighborhood was contracted and the ratio was re-calculated. If its neighborhood was deemed as an inhomogeneous region, the voxel value was calculated using an adaptive Gaussian distance weighted method with respect to the local statistics. A novel method was proposed to reconstruct volume data set with economical usage of memory. Preliminary results obtained from the phantom and a subject's forearm demonstrated that the proposed algorithm was able to well suppress speckles and preserve edges in 3D images. We expect that this study can provide a useful imaging tool for clinical applications using 3D ultrasound.     

Marching cube algorithm: review and trilinear interpolation adaptation for image-based dosimetric models.

Current internal organ dose assessment methodologies utilize three-dimensional (3D) medical images of the body to model organ shapes and tissue interfaces. These models are coupled to computer programs that measure radionuclide energy deposition or chord-length distributions directly within these images. Previous studies have shown that the rectangular shape of image voxels generates voxel effects that alter the outcome of these calculations. To minimize voxel effects, the present study proposes to use the Marching Cube (MC) algorithm to generate isosurfaces delineating tissue interfaces from the gray-level images. First, a review of the different techniques surrounding the MC algorithm is presented. Next, an adaptation of the algorithm is proposed in which a trilinear interpolation of the gray levels is used to generate a hyperboloid surface within the MCs. This new technique is shown to solve the classic ambiguity problem of the MC algorithm and also to reduce the data size inherent to the triangulated surface. It also provides a simple algorithm to accurately measure distances within the image. The technique is then tested with a mathematical model of trabecular bone. The trilinear interpolation method is shown to remove voxel effects and to produce reliable chord-length distributions across image regions. The technique is thus recommended for use with digital medical images needed for internal radiation transport simulations. The current study is performed for a single isosurface that separates two media within the same image, but it is proposed that the technique can be extended to multiple isosurfaces that delineate several organs or organ regions within 3D tomographic voxels of human anatomy.     

Anatomical annotation on vascular structure in volume rendered images

The precise annotation of vascular structure is desired in computer-assisted systems to help surgeons identify each vessel branch. This paper proposes a method that annotates vessels on volume rendered images by rendering their names on them using a two-pass rendering process. In the first rendering pass, vessel surface models are generated using such properties as centerlines, radii, and running directions. Then the vessel names are drawn on the vessel surfaces. Finally, the vessel name images and the corresponding depth buffer are generated by a virtual camera at the viewpoint. In the second rendering pass, volume rendered images are generated by a ray casting volume rendering algorithm that considers the depth buffer generated in the first rendering pass. After the two-pass rendering is finished, an annotated image is generated by blending the volume rendered image with the surface rendered image. To confirm the effectiveness of our proposed method, we performed a computer-assisted system for the automated annotation of abdominal arteries. The experimental results show that vessel names can be drawn on the corresponding vessel surface in the volume rendered images at a computing cost that is nearly the same as that by volume rendering only. The proposed method has enormous potential to be adopted to annotate the vessels in the 3D medical images in clinical applications, such as image-guided surgery.     

Interactive voxel surface rendering in medical applications.

Semi-boundary (SB) data structure is a compact voxel surface representation of the structure from the medical images. It represents only the boundary of the extracted structure and only an opaque object boundary involved in a 3D dataset can be visualized. Its computational complexity is in proportion to the number of SB voxels. In this paper, we propose schemes to reduce the number of projections in two ways. First, in conjunction with neighboring code, we exploit a set of visibility tables to cull some of the invisible SB voxels. Second, we exploit three pass rotations and an incremental approach to quickly determine the projection position for each SB voxel during rendering. With these two combinations, we significantly improve SB rendering performance. As a result, we can achieve an interactive rendering speed on general purpose workstations for our medical applications.     

New method for 3D parametric visualization of contrast-enhanced pulmonary perfusion MRI data

Three-dimensional (3D) dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (3D DCE-MRI) has been proposed for the assessment of regional perfusion. The aim of this work was the implementation of an algorithm for a 3D parametric visualization of lung perfusion using different cutting planes and volume rendering. Our implementation was based on 3D DCE-MRI data of the lungs of five patients and five healthy volunteers. Using the indicator dilution theory, the regional perfusion parameters, tissue blood flow, blood volume and mean transit time were calculated. Due to the required temporal resolution, the volume elements of dynamic MR data sets show a reduced spatial resolution in the z-direction. Therefore, perfusion parameter volumes were interpolated. Linear interpolation and a combination of linear and nearest-neighbor interpolation were evaluated. Additionally, ray tracing was applied for 3D visualization. The linear interpolation algorithm caused interpolation errors at the lung borders. Using the combined interpolation, visualization of perfusion information in arbitrary cutting planes and in 3D using volume rendering was possible. This facilitated the localization of perfusion deficits compared with the coronal orientated source data. The 3D visualization of perfusion parameters using a combined interpolation algorithm is feasible. Further studies are required to evaluate the additional benefit from the 3D visualization.     

Three-dimensional volume rendering of spiral CT data: theory and method.

Three-dimensional (3D) medical images of computed tomographic (CT) data sets can be generated with a variety of computer algorithms. The three most commonly used techniques are shaded surface display, maximum intensity projection, and, more recently, 3D volume rendering. Implementation of 3D volume rendering involves volume data management, which relates to operations including acquisition, resampling, and editing of the data set; rendering parameters including window width and level, opacity, brightness, and percentage classification; and image display, which comprises techniques such as "fly-through" and "fly-around," multiple-view display, obscured structure and shading depth cues, and kinetic and stereo depth cues. An understanding of both the theory and method of 3D volume rendering is essential for accurate evaluation of the resulting images. Three-dimensional volume rendering is useful in a wide variety of applications but is just now being incorporated into commercially available software packages for medical imaging. Although further research is needed to determine the efficacy of 3D volume rendering in clinical applications, with wider availability and improved cost-to-performance ratios in computing, 3D volume rendering is likely to enjoy widespread acceptance in the medical community.     

Real-Time Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

A recursive algorithm suitable for functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) calculations is presented. The correlation coefficient of a time course of images with a reference time series, with the mean and any linear trend projected out, may be computed with 22 operations per voxel, per image; the storage overhead is four numbers per voxel. A statistical model for the FMRI signal is presented, and thresholds for the correlation coefficient are derived from it. Selected images from the first real-time functional neuroimaging experiment (at 3 Tesla) are presented. Using a 50-MHz workstation equipped with a 14-bit analog-to-digital converter, each echo planar image was acquired, reconstructed, correlated, thresh-olded, and displayed in pseudocolor (highlighting active regions in the brain) within 500 ms of the RF pulse.