LKB1 interacts with and phosphorylates PTEN: a functional link between two proteins involved in cancer predisposing syndromes

Germline mutations of the LKB1 (STK11) tumor suppressor genelead to Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS) and predisposition to cancer.LKB1 encodes a serine/threonine kinase generally inactivatedin PJS patients. We identified the dual phosphatase and tumorsuppressor protein PTEN as an LKB1-interacting protein. SeveralLKB1 point mutations associated with PJS disrupt the interactionwith PTEN suggesting that the loss of this interaction mightcontribute to PJS. Although PTEN and LKB1 are predominantlycytoplasmic and nuclear, respectively, their interaction leadsto a cytoplasmic relocalization of LKB1. In addition, we showthat PTEN is a substrate of the kinase LKB1 in vitro. As PTENis a dual phosphatase mutated in autosomal inherited disorderswith phenotypes similar to those of PJS (Bannayan–Riley–Ruvalcabasyndrome and Cowden disease), our study suggests a functionallink between the proteins involved in different hamartomatouspolyposis syndromes and emphasizes the central role played byLKB1 as a tumor suppressor in the small intestine.     

Functional analysis of Peutz-Jeghers mutations reveals that the LKB1 C-terminal region exerts a crucial role in regulating both the AMPK pathway and the cell polarity

Germline mutations of the LKB1 gene are responsible for the cancer-prone Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS). LKB1 encodes a serine-threonine kinase that acts as a regulator of cell cycle, metabolism and cell polarity. The majority of PJS missense mutations abolish LKB1 enzymatic activity and thereby impair all functions assigned to LKB1. Here, we have investigated the functional consequences of recurrent missense mutations identified in PJS and in sporadic tumors which map in the LKB1 C-terminal non-catalytic region. We report that these C-terminal mutations neither disrupt LKB1 kinase activity nor interfere with LKB1-induced growth arrest. However, these naturally occuring mutations lessened LKB1-mediated activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and impaired downstream signaling. Furthermore, C-terminal mutations compromise LKB1 ability to establish and maintain polarity of both intestinal epithelial cells and migrating astrocytes. Consistent with these findings, mutational analysis reveals that the LKB1 tail exerts an essential function in the control of cell polarity. Overall, our results ascribe a crucial regulatory role to the LKB1 C-terminal region. Our findings further indicate that LKB1 tumor suppressor activity is likely to depend on the regulation of AMPK signaling and cell polarization.     

异丹叶大黄素下调膀胱癌细胞中细胞周期蛋白D1表达的分子机制研究

 目的：探索异丹叶大黄素（ISO）下调肿瘤细胞中细胞周期蛋白D1表达的分子机制。方法：以ISO作用于人源性膀胱癌UMUC3、RT12和RT4细胞后用Western blotting法检测细胞周期蛋白D1表达水平;以RT-PCR法检测细胞周期蛋白D1 mRNA的表达水平。稳定转染细胞周期蛋白D1启动子萤光素酶报告基因至UMUC3细胞并筛选后,检测ISO预处理后萤光素酶活性。ISO预处理UMUC3细胞后,提取核蛋白检测核转录因子表达水平的变化。分别稳定转染GFP和GFP-细胞周期蛋白D1表达构建载体,筛选克隆;ISO预处理后,Western blotting法检测细胞周期蛋白D1的蛋白表达水平, 贴壁依赖性细胞生长实验法检测细胞生长能力的变化,流式细胞术检测细胞周期的变化。分别稳定转染人源性细胞周期蛋白D1野生型和-163位点突变型萤光素酶报告基因质粒载体至UMUC3细胞并筛选,ISO预处理后检测细胞的萤光素酶活性。最后利用染色质免疫沉淀的方法,以抗Sp1抗体检测ISO对Sp1与细胞周期蛋白D1启动子结合力的影响。结果：ISO可从mRNA和蛋白水平显著抑制肿瘤细胞的细胞周期蛋白D1水平,并且是从内源性转录水平来抑制细胞周期蛋白D1的转录。ISO可抑制、下调核转录因子Sp1的表达,并抑制Sp1与细胞周期蛋白D1启动子区域的结合力,该结合位点主要位于启动子-92到+27 bp的5’-非翻译区。结论：ISO可通过下调Sp1核转录因子表达及其与细胞周期蛋白D1启动子的结合,从内源性转录水平来抑制细胞周期蛋白D1的表达,从而诱导G 0/G 1细胞周期阻滞并抑制肿瘤细胞增殖。我们的研究将为临床中药单体ISO综合治疗肿瘤提供新的策略。     

Functional analysis of LKB1/STK11 mutants and two aberrant isoforms found in Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome patients

Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome (PJS) is thought to be caused by mutations occurring in the widely expressed serine/threonine protein kinase named LKB1/STK11. Recent work has led to the identification of four mutants (R304W, I177N, K175-D176del, L263fsX286) and two novel aberrant LKB1/STK11 cDNA isoforms (r291-464del, r485-1283del) in a group of PJS Italian patients. Three of the four mutations only change 1 or 2 amino acids in the LKB1/STK11 catalytic domain. Here we demonstrate that all six LKB1/STK11 variants analysed are completely inactive in vitro as they were unable to autophosphorylate at Thr336, the major LKB1/STK11 autophosphorylation site, and to phosphorylate the p53 tumour suppressor protein. We also show that 5 out of the 6 variants are entirely localised in the nucleus in contrast to the wild type LKB1/STK11, which is detected in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. Finally we demonstrate that all 6 LKB1/STK11 variants, in contrast to wild type LKB1/STK11, are unable to suppress the growth of melanoma G361 cells. Taken together, these results demonstrate that the LKB1 mutations investigated in this study lead to the loss of serine/threonine kinase activity and are therefore likely to be the primary cause of PJS development in the patients that they were isolated from.     

Molecular genetic alterations in hamartomatous polyps and carcinomas of patients with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome

AIM: To investigate whether mutations in the STK11/LKB1 gene and genes implicated in the colorectal adenoma-carcinoma sequence are involved in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS) related tumorigenesis. METHODS: Thirty nine polyps and five carcinomas from 17 patients (from 13 families) with PJS were analysed for loss of heterozygosity (LOH) at 19p13.3 (STK11/LKB1 gene locus), 5q21 (APC gene locus), 18q21-22 (Smad4 and Smad2 gene locus), and 17p13 (p53 gene locus), and evaluated for immunohistochemical staining of p53. In addition, mutational analysis of K-ras codon 12, APC, and p53 and immunohistochemistry for Smad4 expression were performed on all carcinomas. RESULTS: LOH at 19p was seen in 15 of the 39 polyps and in all carcinomas (n = 5). Interestingly, six of the seven polyps from patients with cancer had LOH, compared with nine of the 31 polyps from the remaining patients (p = 0.01). In one polyp from a patient without a germline STK11/LKB1 mutation, no LOH at 19p or at three alternative PJS candidate loci (19q, 6p, and 6q) was found. No LOH at 5q was observed. However, mutational analysis revealed an APC mutation in four of the five carcinomas. LOH at 17p was not seen in polyps or carcinomas; immunohistochemistry showed expression of p53 in one carcinoma and focal expression in three polyps. At subsequent sequence analysis, no p53 mutation was found. One carcinoma had an activating K-ras codon 12 mutation and another carcinoma showed 18q LOH; however, no loss of Smad4 expression was seen. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide further evidence that STK11/LKB1 acts as a tumour suppressor gene, and may be involved in the early stages of PJS tumorigenesis. Further research is needed to see whether LOH in PJS polyps could be used as a biomarker to predict cancer. Differences in molecular genetic alterations noted between the adenoma-carcinoma sequence and PJS related tumours suggest the presence of a distinct pathway of carcinogenesis.     

Induction of growth inhibition and apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells by auristatin-PE and gemcitabine.

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is the fifth leading cause of cancer related deaths in the United States. Treatment for this disease has largely been unsuccessful, which may partly be due to insufficient data regarding the molecular mechanisms of chemotherapeutic drugs currently being used as single agents or in combined modality regimens. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms by which auristatin-PE, a newly developed experimental agent, and gemcitabine, a commercially available anti-cancer agent, exert their inhibitory effects on pancreatic cancer cell lines containing wild-type p53 (HPAC) and mutant p53 (PANC-1). Our results showed that auristatin-PE and gemcitabine inhibited cell growth and induced cell cycle arrest in G2/M and S phase, respectively. Auristatin-PE also induced apoptosis in both cell lines. Western blot analysis showed that auristatin-PE up-regulated the expression of wt-p53, p21WAF1 and Bax, and down-regulated Bcl-2 and cyclin B in HPAC cells, while only up-regulation of p21WAF1 and Bax was observed in PANC-1 cells. These results suggest that auristatin-PE may induce apoptosis and p21WAF1 expression through p53-dependent or independent pathways, and that up-regulation of p21WAF1 and Bax and down-regulation of Bcl-2 may be the molecular mechanism through which auristatin-PE inhibits cell growth and induces apoptosis. Furthermore, the up-regulation of p21WAF1 and down-regulation of cyclin B may contribute to the G2/M cell cycle arrest. Combination of auristatin-PE and gemcitabine showed significantly greater inhibition of cell growth and up-regulated expression of p21WAF1 and Bax. From these results, we conclude that the selection of therapeutic agents based on their molecular mechanism may improve therapeutic outcome, and that auristatin-PE may be more effective in the treatment of pancreatic cancer when given in combination with gemcitabine, rather than as a single agent.     

Mutations and impaired function of LKB1 in familial and non-familial Peutz-Jeghers syndrome and a sporadic testicular cancer

Germline mutations in LKB1 have been reported to underlie familial Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS) with intestinal hamartomatous polyps and an elevated risk of various neoplasms. To investigate the prevalence of LKB1 germline mutations in PJS more generally, we studied samples from 33 unrelated PJS patients including eight non-familial sporadic patients, 20 familial patients and five patients with unknown family history. Nineteen germline mutations were identified, 12 (60%) in familial and four (50%) in sporadic cases. LKB1 mutations were not detected in 14 (42%) patients, indicating that the existence of additional minor PJS loci cannot be excluded. LKB1 is predicted to encode a serine/threonine kinase. To demonstrate the putative Lkb1 kinase function and to study the consequences of LKB1 mutations in PJS and sporadic tumors, we have analyzed the kinase activity of wild-type and mutant Lkb1 proteins. Interestingly, while most of the small deletions or missense mutations resulted in loss-of-function alleles, one missense mutation (G163D) previously identified in a sporadic testicular tumor demonstrated severely impaired but detectable kinase activity.      

Germline mutation screening of the STK11/LKB1 gene in familial breast cancer with LOH on 19p

The recently cloned STK11/LKB1 on chromosome 19p has been shown to be a new tumor suppressor gene. Mutations in the LKB1/STK11 gene on chromosome 19p account for most cases of Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS), in which intestinal hamartomas are associated with elevated risks of several cancer types, including breast cancer. A previous study revealed that familial breast cancer is associated with loss of heterozygosity (LOH) on 19p. To establish whether germline mutations of STK11/LKB1 account for familial breast cancer, 22 patients from 14 breast cancer families with LOH on 19p and one PJS family were selected for screening for germline mutations of LKB1/STK11. A combination of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-heteroduplex, single-strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analyses, Southern blot analysis and direct sequencing were used for mutation detection. No mutations were identified. Germline mutations of LKB1/STK11 did not contribute to breast cancer in these families.     

Mutations in the human LKB1/STK11 gene

The human LKB gene (official HUGO symbol, STK11) encodes a serine/threonine protein kinase that is defective in patients with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS). PJS is an autosomal dominantly inherited syndrome characterized by hamartomatous polyposis of the gastrointestinal tract and mucocutaneous pigmentation. To date, 145 different germline LKB1 mutations have been reported. The majority of the mutations lead to a truncated protein product. One mutational hotspot has been observed. A 1-bp deletion and a 1-bp insertion at the mononucleotide repeat (C6 repeat, c.837-c.842) between the codons 279-281 have been found in six and seven unrelated PJS families, respectively. However, these mutations account only for approximately 7% of all mutations identified in the PJS families (13/193). A review of the literature provides a total of 40 different somatic LKB1 mutations in 41 sporadic tumors and seven cancer cell lines. Mutations occur particularly in lung and colorectal cancer. Most of the somatic LKB1 mutations result in truncation of the protein. A mutational hotspot seems to be a C6 repeat accounting for 12.5% of all somatic mutations (6/48). These results are concordant with the germline mutation spectrum. However, the proportion of the missense mutations seems to be higher among the somatic mutations (45%) than among the germline mutations (21%), and only seven of the mutations are exactly the same in both of the mutation types.     

LKB1, the multitasking tumour suppressor kinase

Mutations in the lkb1 gene are found in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS), with loss of heterozygosity or somatic mutations at the lkb1 locus, suggesting the gene product, the serine/threonine kinase LKB1, may function as a tumour suppressor. Patients with PJS are at a greater risk of developing cancers of epithelial tissue origin. It is widely accepted that the presence of hamartomatous polyps in PJS does not in itself lead to the development of malignancy. The signalling mechanisms that lead to these PJS related malignancies are not well understood. However, it is evident from the recent literature that LKB1 is a multitasking kinase, with unlimited potential in orchestrating cell activity. Thus far, LKB1 has been found to play a role in chromatin remodelling, cell cycle arrest, Wnt signalling, cell polarity, and energy metabolism, all of which may require the tumour suppressor function of this kinase and/or its catalytic activity.     

Expressions of cyclin E, A, and B1 in Hodgkin and Reed–Sternberg cells: Not suppressed by cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 expression

p21 Is involved in the control of the mammalian cell cycle through the binding and inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinases. The cyclins are dependent on the phases of the cell cycle, and divided into two classes: mitotic cyclins (A, B1, B2) and G1 cyclins (C, D1, D2, D3, E). The product of the p21 gene is a potent downstream effector of the p53 tumor-suppressor gene function. The Hodgkin and Reed- Sternberg (H & RS) cells in Hodgkin's disease are reported to frequently express p53, p21, and nuclear proliferative activity (Ki-67). To clarify the relationship of p21, p53 and cyclins, we performed the immunohistochemistry of p53, p21, Ki-67, cyclin D1, cyclin E, cyclin A and cyclin B1, using 11 cases with Hodgkin's disease. In addition, we performed p53 gene sequencing of exon 5-8, and in situ hybridization of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) EBER-1 region, whose products have reported to induce the expression of cyclin D. In this study, in all cases, Ki-67 was expressed in almost all H & RS cells, and p53 and p21 were expressed in H & RS cells. No p53 gene mutations were detected in any case, and p53 protein overexpression did not correlate with p53 gene mutations. The number of p21-positive H & RS cells was significantly related with that of the p53-positive cells. The cyclins E, A, B1 and D1 were also expressed in H & RS cells. Unexpectedly, the expression of the cyclins was not suppressed by p21 and p53 expression. In addition, the existence of EBV was not related to the expression of cyclins. It is considered that H & RS cells are, indeed, in cell cycle and commonly express the cell cyclins, and that the cell cycle of H & RS cells may not be specifically fixed in the G1, S, G2 or M phases.     

Cytoplasmic localization of p27 (cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1B/KIP1) in colorectal cancer: inverse correlations with nuclear p27 loss, microsatellite instability, and CpG island methylator phenotype

Cytoplasmic mislocalization of p27 (CDKN1B/KIP1) is caused by activated AKT1 and has been associated with poor prognosis in various cancers. CIMP in colorectal cancer is characterized by extensive promoter methylation and is associated with MSI-MSI-H and BRAF mutations. We have recently shown a positive correlation between MSI/CIMP and loss of nuclear p27. However, no study has examined cytoplasmic p27 mislocalization in relation to CIMP and MSI in colorectal cancer. Using MethyLight assays, we quantified DNA methylation in 8 CIMP-specific gene promoters (CACNA1G, CDKN2A (p16), CRABP1, IGF2, MLH1, NEUROG1, RUNX3, and SOCS1) in 853 colorectal cancer samples obtained from 2 large prospective cohorts. We assessed expressions of nuclear and cytoplasmic p27 and nuclear p53 by immunohistochemistry. Cytoplasmic p27 expression was inversely associated with loss of nuclear p27 (P < .0001), CIMP-high (P < .0001), MSI-H (P < .0001), and BRAF mutations (P < .0001). The inverse association of cytoplasmic p27 with CIMP-high (or MSI-H) was independent of MSI (or CIMP) status. In addition, the inverse association of cytoplasmic p27 with CIMP-high was independent of KRAS/BRAF status. BRAF and CDKN2A (p16) methylation were not correlated with cytoplasmic p27 after stratification by CIMP status. The inverse associations of cytoplasmic p27 with MSI-H and CIMP-high were much more pronounced in p53-negative than p53-positive tumors. In conclusion, cytoplasmic p27 expression is inversely associated with MSI-H and CIMP-high, particularly in p53-negative tumors, suggesting interplay of functional losses of p27 and p53 in the development of various molecular subtypes of colorectal cancer.     

Nuclear accumulation of cyclin D1 during S phase inhibits Cul4-dependent Cdt1 proteolysis and triggers p53-dependent DNA rereplication

Deregulation of cyclin D1 occurs in numerous human cancers through mutations, alternative splicing, and gene amplification. Although cancer-derived cyclin D1 mutants are potent oncogenes in vitro and in vivo, the mechanisms whereby they contribute to neoplasia are poorly understood. We now provide evidence derived from both mouse models and human cancer-derived cells revealing that nuclear accumulation of catalytically active mutant cyclin D1/CDK4 complexes triggers DNA rereplication, resulting from Cdt1 stabilization, which in turn triggers the DNA damage checkpoint and p53-dependent apoptosis. Loss of p53 through mutations or targeted deletion results in increased genomic instability and neoplastic growth. Collectively, the data presented reveal mechanistic insights into how uncoupling of critical cell cycle regulatory events will perturb DNA replication fidelity, thereby contributing to neoplastic transformation.     

Novel mutations in the LKB1/STK11 gene in Dutch Peutz‐Jeghers families

The Peutz‐Jeghers syndrome (PJS) is a rare hereditary disorder in which gastrointestinal hamartomatous polyposis, mucocutaneous pigmentation, and a predisposition for developing cancer are transmitted in an autosomal dominant fashion. The recently identified LKB1/STK11 gene located at chromosome 19p13.3 is mutated in a number of PJS pedigrees. We performed mutation analysis in 19, predominantly Dutch, PJS families. In 12 of these families, we identified LKB1/STK11 mutations, none of which has been described before. These 12 novel LKB1/STK11 mutations consist of one nonsense mutation, three frameshift deletions, three frameshift insertions, two acceptor splice site mutations, and three missense mutations. In addition, we detected four polymorphisms in LKB1/STK11. In the remaining seven PJS families, we found no apparent abnormalities of the LKB1/STK11 gene, which could reflect the existence of locus heterogeneity in PJS. None of the mutations occurred in more than one family, and a number were demonstrated to have arisen de novo. The diverse array of mutations found, the apparent high mutation rate, as well as the existence of a possible second PJS locus, renders diagnostic or predictive genetic testing in individual patients difficult, although future identification of additional mutations or even gene(s) will help in increasing the yield of direct mutation analysis. Hum Mutat 13:476–481, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Protein expression of p53, p21 (WAF1/CIP1), bcl-2, Bax, cyclin D1 and pRb in human colon carcinomas

Tumour growth is regulated by a balance between proliferation, growth arrest and programmed cell death (apoptosis). Until recently, the majority of the studies dealing with oncogenesis has been focused on the regulation of cell proliferation. There is now growing understanding that control of growth arrest and apoptosis play key roles in the development of human cancer and in cancer treatment. Some of the more heavily studied proteins of importance for the control of growth arrest and apoptosis are p53, p21, bcl-2 and bax. Alterations in the p53 protein may lead to malignant transformation and defect therapy response, most likely as a result of defective p53-dependent apoptosis. In addition, p21 (WAF1/CIP1) is involved in cell-cycle arrest and probably in induction of p53-dependent apoptosis. Proteins belonging to the bcl-2 family are also important for normal apoptosis. Overexpression of bcl-2 protein is thought to reduce the apoptotic capacity, while bax protein seems to be necessary for induction of apoptosis. In this study, we have immunostained tissues from 93 primary colon carcinomas and have examined the expression of p53, p21 (WAF1/CIP1), bcl-2 bax, pRb and cyclin D1 for evaluation of their roles in colon-cancer progression. A highly significant association between p53 accumulation and downregulation of p21 (WAF1/CIP1) was seen. We also found a strong association between reduced/absent p21 and the development of metastases and death due to cancer disease. Cyclin D1, bcl-2 and bax protein failed to have independent prognostic impacts. Bcl-2 and bax protein levels showed an inverse relationship. The results of the present study indicate that reduced p21 protein levels play an important role in progression of colon cancer. We concluded that evaluation of p21 expression in primary colon carcinomas at the time of surgery might be a valuable tool in defining patients with a high risk of developing metastases. Received: 22 June 1999 / Accepted: 24 September 1999