Recycling bovine embryos for nuclear transfer

The terms recycling and serial transfer refer to the use of cells from nuclear transfer embryos as a source of donor nuclei for a subsequent round of nuclear transfer. This approach has two benefits: improved reprogramming of the donor nucleus and an increase in absolute numbers of identical offspring. The beneficial effect of sequential exposure of donor nuclei to the early cytoplasm has been proven in several species, including amphibia, mice and cattle. Transferable embryos and live offspring have also been obtained from cattle and goat embryos produced by three and five rounds of nuclear transfer respectively. Although the limits to recycling have not been determined, embryonic development has been obtained from up to 10 cycles of nuclear transfer. Our results do not indicate differences in the embryonic developmental competence between clones from three generations in bovine embryo recycling. Although one live offspring from the second generation and pregnancies from third generation clones have been obtained, overall lower pregnancy rates and higher fetal losses than from first generation clones have been observed. Application of a novel vitrification method to nuclear transfer recycling removes many of the practical limitations of the technology.     

In vitro development of green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgenic bovine embryos after nuclear transfer using different cell cycles and passages of fetal fibroblasts

Nuclear transfer using transfected donor cells provides an efficient new strategy for the production of transgenic farm animals. The present study assessed in vitro development of nuclear transfer embryos using green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene-transfected bovine fetal fibroblasts. In experiment 1, bovine fetal fibroblasts (BFF) were transfected with linearized pEGFP-N1 by electroporation, and the enucleated oocytes were reconstructed by nuclear transfer of transfected cells (BFF-GFP). The rates of blastocyst formation did not differ significantly between BFF and BFF-GFP (18.2% v. 15.6%). In experiment 2, before nuclear transfer, the donor cell stage was synchronized by serum deprivation or forming a confluent monolayer. The rates of cleavage (67.1% v. 71.8%) and blastocyst formation (15.8% v. 15.5%) did not differ between confluent and serum-starved cells after nuclear transfer. In experiment 3, the effects of different passages of donor fibroblast cells on the development of nuclear transfer embryos were investigated. Donor cells from 'early' (at passage 8-16) showed better blastocyst development (18.9%) than those from 'late' (at passage 17-32; 10.5%). In conclusion, this study suggests that transgenic somatic cell nuclei from early passages can be reprogrammed more effectively than those from late passages. In addition, GFP, a non-invasive selection marker, can be used to select transgenic nuclear transfer embryos.     

Reprogramming cattle somatic cells by isolated nuclear injection

The development of a somatic cell nuclear transfer procedure for the production of blastocyst stage cattle embryos is described. Bovine fetal fibroblasts were used for fusion experiments with surgically enucleated oocytes (cytoplasts) following the establishment of optimal parameters for electrofusion from isofusion contours. Fusion rates were increased by decreasing size of the cytoplasts used but cleavage was decreased by decreasing size of the cytoplast used (quarter, half and whole cytoplasts). The use of double cytoplasts did not improve cleavage, and development to blastocysts could not be achieved. In a comparison of electrofusion of fibroblasts with cytoplasts in the subzonal perivitelline space with intracytoplasmic injection of nuclei and parthenogenetically activated oocytes, 2%, 14% and 24% developed to blastocysts respectively. In the group injected with isolated nuclei, the passage number (4 to 9) had no apparent influence on developmental competence to blastocysts. The embryos produced by nuclear injection of somatic cell nuclei showed the normal pattern of cell surface appearance of TEC-3 and TEC-4 stage-specific epitopes during development, as seen in fertilized oocytes. We conclude that the nuclear injection of somatic cell nuclei is a relatively efficient way to clone bovine embryos.     

Production of transgenic porcine blastocysts by hand-made cloning

Recently, a zona-free technique for bovine somatic cell nuclear transfer (NT) with no requirement for micromanipulation (i.e. hand-made cloning (HMC)) has been described. The present study demonstrates the application of the HMC technique in the production of transgenic porcine blastocysts. In vitro-matured zona-free porcine oocytes were bisected manually using a microblade and halves containing no chromatin (i.e. the cytoplasts) were selected. Two cytoplasts were electrofused with one transgenic fibroblast expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein and reconstructed embryos were activated in calcium ionophore (A23187) followed by 6-dimethylaminopurine. Subsequently, embryos were cultured in NCSU-23 medium supplemented with 4 mg mL(-1) bovine serum albumin for 7 days. In five replicates, 93.0 +/- 7.0% (mean +/- s.e.m.) of attempted reconstructed embryos fused and survived activation (31/31, 15/23, 28/28, 37/37 and 28/28). On Day 7 after activation, the respective blastocyst rates (per successfully reconstructed embryos) were 6% (2/31), 7% (1/15), 7% (2/28), 3% (1/37) and 7% (2/28), resulting in an average of 6.0 +/- 0.8%. Enhanced green fluorescent protein was expressed in all cells of all eight developing blastocysts. Efforts are now directed towards the production of offspring from such transgenic NT blastocysts.     

No differences in sheep somatic cell nuclear transfer outcomes using serum-starved or actively growing donor granulosa cells

The aim of this study was to compare serum-starved and non-starved donor cells in sheep nuclear transfer with a special emphasis on cloning outcomes. Sheep oocytes, derived either in vivo or in vitro, were fused with cultured serum-starved or actively growing adult granulosa cells. Resulting blastocysts were transferred to recipients fresh or after vitrification, and subsequent pregnancies followed to term. Donor cell treatment did not significantly affect preimplantation development, pregnancy rates, fetal loss or neonate survival rates. Of 22 lambs born, ten survived the immediate perinatal period but all succumbed at various timepoints within the first few weeks of life. The results of the study suggest that the use of serum-starved cells offers no advantages or disadvantages to cloning outcomes. Neither were significant differences in outcomes observed when using either in vivo- or in vitro-derived oocytes or embryos transferred fresh or after vitrification. Yet, these results continue to highlight problems associated with somatic cell cloning as indicated by offspring mortality. It remains unclear whether the high offspring mortality in the current study was related to species, associated with the cell lines used or the result of other causes.     

Comparison of two approaches to nuclear transfer in the bovine: hand-made cloning with modifications and the conventional nuclear transfer technique

The aim of the present study was to compare the in vitro and in vivo developmental competence of hand-made cloning (HMC) embryos with the conventional nuclear transfer (NT) method using five somatic cell lines and in vitro-fertilised (IVF; control) embryos. Modifications to the HMC procedure included fusion efficiency optimisation, effect of cytoplasmic volume and cloned embryo aggregation. The developmental competence of blastocysts from each of the treatment groups and cell lines used was assessed following transfer to 345 recipients. Vitrification was also used to enable management of recipient resources and to assess the susceptibility of membranes to cryopreservation following zona removal. Increasing cytoplasmic volume to 150% or aggregating two embryos improved the blastocyst development rate and increased the total cell number. Although HMC embryo transfers established a significantly higher pregnancy rate on Day 30 than fresh IVF or NT embryo transfers, the overall outcome in terms of cloned live births derived from either fresh or vitrified/thawed HMC or NT embryo transfers across the five cell lines did not differ. The birth and continued survival of clones produced with HMC technology with equivalent efficiency to NT shows that it can be used as an alternative method for the generation of cloned offspring in the bovine.     

Transgenic chickens expressing beta-galactosidase hydrolyze lactose in the intestine

Chickens do not possess the necessary enzymes to efficiently hydrolyze lactose into glucose and galactose. The bacterial enzyme beta-galactosidase can convert lactose into glucose and galactose. Transgenic chickens that carry the E. coli lacZ gene and express beta-galactosidase could potentially utilize lactose as an energy source. The objective of this study was to determine the ability of the transgenic chicken small intestinal mucosa to hydrolyze lactose into glucose and galactose. Lactase activity was examined in the intestinal muscosa from wild-type chickens and two lines of chickens that carry the lacZ gene and express beta-galactosidase. Lactase activity was significantly higher in both transgenic lines compared with wild-type birds (P < 0.05). The presence of the beta-galactosidase enzyme was revealed by X-gal staining in the intestine of transgenic chickens, whereas it was not present in the wild-type chickens. Overall, it appears that inserting the lacZ gene, which encodes beta-galactosidase, has resulted in a chicken that can utilize lactose as an energy source. This study demonstrates that transgenic technology can be used to modify nutrient utilization in domestic poultry.     

Embryo technology: implications for fertility in cattle

During the past thirty years, basic and experimental studies on classical (superovulation; non-surgical recovery and transfer of cattle embryos) and advanced embryo technologies (in vitro embryo production; cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer) have generated structural and functional information on oocyte development and quality, fertilisation and conceptus development. This information has provided new insight, not only into these technologies per se but also into the factors contributing to fertility in cattle. It is now known that the peripheral and follicular endocrine profiles have a profound influence on the subsequent developmental competence of the embryo. It is also well established that manipulation of the oocytes or embryos may adversely affect embryonic and foetal development, leading to the so-called 'large offspring syndrome'. Information from such studies has alerted scientists to the importance of epigenetics in cattle reproduction.     

冷冻胚胎经序贯共培养用于建立人胚胎干细胞系

目的:利用长期冷冻人卵裂期胚胎经序贯共培养形成的囊胚建立人类胚胎干细胞系。方法:将冷冻≥10年的卵裂期胚胎复苏后,采用单层卵丘细胞序贯共培养至囊胚期,经辅助孵出,置鼠胚胎成纤维细胞(MEF)饲养层全胚培养,原代培养6d后加入20%MEF条件培养基培养至形成原代克隆。观察人胚胎干细胞集落的生长状态并通过碱性磷酸酶染色、Oct-4基因表达、核型分析及体外分化实验等方法进行生物学鉴定。结果:9枚冷冻卵裂期胚胎经序贯共培养,有6枚发育到囊胚期,最终获得1株胚胎干细胞系。经鉴定该细胞系具有碱性磷酸酶活性、表达Oct-4胚胎干细胞特异标记、形成拟胚体、在体外形成具有自动节律性的心肌细胞、并具有46,XY核型等5种特性。结论:冷冻胚胎经序贯共培养能够改善胚胎发育潜能,有助于建立人胚胎干细胞系。     

Functional assessment for elimination of mismatches in nuclear and whole cell extracts obtained from mouse and human blastocysts

Preimplantation embryos may have an increased risk of having mismatches due to the rates of cell proliferation and DNA replication. Elimination of mismatches in human gametes and embryos has not been investigated. In this study we developed a sensitive functional assay to examine the repair or elimination of mismatches in both commercially available cell extracts and extracts obtained from preimplantation embryos. Heteroduplex molecules were constructed using synthetic oligonucleotides. Efficiency of the repair of mismatches was semi-quantitatively analysed by exposure to nuclear/whole cell extracts (as little as 2.5 µg) and extracts obtained from pooled mouse and human blastocysts to investigate the repair capacity in human embryos. A cell free in vitro assay was successfully developed to analyze the repair of mismatches using heteroduplex complexes. The assay was further optimized to analyze repair of mismatches in cell extracts obtained from oocytes and blastocysts using minute amounts of protein. The efficiency of mismatch repair was examined in both mouse and human blastocysts (2.5 µg). The blastocysts were observed to have a lower repair efficiency compared to commercially available nuclear and whole cell extracts. In conclusion, a sensitive, easy, and fast in vitro technique was developed to detect the repair of mismatch efficiency in embryos.     

Derivation characteristics and perspectives for mammalian pluripotential stem cells

Pluripotential stem cells have been derived in mice and primates from preimplantation embryos, postimplantation embryos and bone marrow stroma. Embryonic stem cells established from the inner cell mass of the mouse and human blastocyst can be maintained in an undifferentiated state for a long time by continuous passage on embryonic fibroblasts or in the presence of specific inhibitors of differentiation. Pluripotential stem cells can be induced to differentiate into all the tissues of the body and are able to colonise tissues of interest after transplantation. In mouse models of disease, there are numerous examples of improved tissue function and correction of pathological phenotype. Embryonic stem cells can be derived by nuclear transfer to establish genome-specific cell lines and, in mice, it has been shown that embryonic stem cells are more successfully reprogrammed for development by nuclear transfer than somatic cells. Pluripotential stem cells are a very valuable research resource for the analysis of differentiation pathways, functional genomics, tissue engineering and drug screening. Clinical applications may include both cell therapy and gene therapy for a wide range of tissue injury and degeneration. There is considerable interest in the development of pluripotential stem cell lines in many mammalian species for similar research interests and applications.     

Somatic cell nuclear transfer in buffalos: effect of the fusion and activation protocols and embryo culture system on preimplantation embryo development

The present study was conducted primarily to evaluate several factors that affect the nuclear transfer programme in water buffalos, in which relatively few studies have been performed. Embryos reconstructed with quiescent fetal fibroblasts and metaphase II cytoplasts were matured for 24 h, and activation was found to be comparatively better than in those matured for 30 h. A significantly higher proportion of embryos fused (52.0 +/- 1.9) and cleaved (51.2 +/- 1.7) when the couplets were fused 4-6 h before activation than when fused and activated simultaneously (46.5 +/- 1.6 and 44.5 +/- 2.0, respectively). Development of nuclear transfer embryos to the blastocyst stage (4.8 +/- 2.2) was supported by a commercially available sequential medium, and cleavage (76.5 +/- 2.8) was significantly higher in this medium compared with cleavage in TCM-199 with oviduct epithelial cell coculture (45.6 +/- 1.5) and synthetic oviduct fluid (21.8 +/- 6.6). Of the 16 cloned embryos transferred, none resulted in pregnancy. The present study demonstrates that optimal numbers of cloned buffalo blastocysts can be obtained from oocytes matured for 24 h, fused 3-4 h before activation and cultured in a commercially available sequential media (G1/G2), thus providing further information to enable successful nuclear transfer in buffalos.     

Somatic cell nuclear transfer in pigs: recent achievements and future possibilities

During the past 6 years, considerable advancement has been achieved in experimental embryology of pigs. This process was mainly generated by the rapidly increasing need for transgenic pigs for biomedical research purposes, both for future xenotransplantation to replace damaged human organs or tissues, and for creating authentic animal models for human diseases to study aetiology, pathogenesis and possible therapy. Theoretically, among various possibilities, an established somatic cell nuclear transfer system with genetically engineered donor cells seems to be an efficient and reliable approach to achieve this goal. However, as the result of unfortunate coincidence of known and unknown factors, porcine embryology had been a handicapped branch of reproductive research in domestic animals and a very intensive and focused research was required to eliminate or minimise this handicap. This review summarises recent achievements both in the background technologies (maturation, activation, embryo culture) and the actual performance of the nuclear replacement. Recent simplified methods for in vivo development after embryo transfer are also discussed. Finally, several fields of potential application for human medical purposes are discussed. The authors conclude that although in this early phase of research no direct evidence can be provided about the practical use of transgenic pigs produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer as organ donors or disease models, the future chances even in medium term are good, and at least proportional with the efforts and sums that are invested into this research area worldwide.     

In vitro development of porcine parthenogenetic and cloned embryos: comparison of oocyte-activating techniques,various culture systems and nuclear transfer methods

The present study compares the development of porcine embryos following several oocyte activation techniques and culture systems using in-vitro-matured porcine oocytes. Two different nuclear transfer techniques (electrofusion and nuclear injection) were also tested using adult somatic cell (nucleus) and enucleated cytoplasm. In Experiment 1, oocytes activated by electric pulse, electric pulse + 6-dimethylaminopurine (6-DMAP), or ionomycin + 6-DMAP showed higher pronuclear formation rates (P<0.01) than those in the other groups (negative control and ionomycin treatment). Of these three groups, oocytes activated by electric pulse + 6-DMAP showed greater developmental rate to the blastocyst stage and higher cell numbers in blastocysts than those activated by electric pulse or ionomycin + 6-DMAP (P<0.05). In Experiment 2, activated oocytes were grouped and cultured as follows: (i) NCSU-PVA for 6 days (PVA-PVA); (ii) NCSU-BSA for 6 days (BSA-BSA); (iii) NCSU-FBS for 6 days (FBS-FBS); (iv) NCSU-PVA for 4 days followed by NCSU-BSA for 2 days (PVA-BSA); (v) NCSU-PVA for 4 days followed by NCSU-FBS for 2 days (PVA-FBS); and (vi) NCSU-BSA for 4 days followed by NCSU-FBS for 2 days (BSA-FBS). Cleavage rates in all experimental groups were not significantly different, but the embryos cultured in PVA-BSA or BSA-BSA showed higher blastocyst formation rates than those in other groups (P<0.05). In Experiment 3, the pseudo-pronuclear formation rate tended to be higher in the electrofusion group than in piezo-driven nuclear injection group, but the difference was not statistically significant (P=0.12). In addition, there was no significant difference between groups in cleavage, blastocyst formation, or the number of cells in blastocysts. The results indicate that porcine adult somatic cell nuclear transfer can be performed by the nuclear injection technique with a piezo-driven micromanipulator. In addition, activation by electrical pulse followed by 6-DMAP and in vitro culture in BSA-supplemented medium throughout the culture period was found to be the most efficient system for the production of porcine parthenogenetic embryos in vitro.     

Effects of cycloheximide treatment and interval between fusion and activation on in vitro development of pig nuclear transfer embryos

The effects of cycloheximide (CHX) treatment and the interval between fusion and activation on the development of pig nuclear transfer (NT) embryos constructed with enucleated oocytes and serum-starved granulosa/cumulus cells were examined. One group of couplets was fused and activated simultaneously (FAS) by a single electrical pulse (activation pulse). Another three groups of couplets were fused electricaly 1.5, 2.5 or 4.5 h before being subjected to the activation pulse (FBA). Each group was divided into two subgroups and incubated with or without CHX. The NT embryos treated with CHX showed a high and stable cleavage rate, regardless of the interval between fusion and activation; however, development to blastocysts was improved only when the NT embryos were subjected to FAS with CHX. These results indicate that CHX-sensitive events occurring shortly after FAS may be responsible for the development to blastocysts. Fusion pulse rarely activated M II oocytes, but rapidly dropped the p34cdc2 kinase activity in NT embryos. A pronucleus-like structure was observed 2-2.5 h after the activation pulse with CHX in NT embryos of both the FAS and FBA groups. Therefore, successive inactivation of M-phase promoting factor and cytostatic factor at a certain short interval may also play an important role in the development of NT embryos.     

Stereomicroscopic and histological examination of bovine embryos following extended in vitro culture

Attempts to support survival of mammalian embryos after hatching have met with limited success, although some mouse studies have reported growth at the post-implantation stage. The aim of the present research was to establish and characterise an in vitro culture system that could support extended growth and differentiation of bovine embryos. Abattoir-derived oocytes were matured and fertilised in vitro. Presumptive zygotes were cultured in modified synthetic oviduct fluid (SOFaaci) medium supplemented with 5% cow serum (CS). On Day 9, single hatched blastocysts (n = 160) were randomly allocated to SOFaaci supplemented with either 5% bovine serum albumin, 5% CS, 5% fetal calf serum (FCS) or SOF only and cultured on a collagen gel substrate for up to 45 days. Embryos were evaluated at various time-points until complete disaggregation or the total disappearance of embryonic cells. Blastocyst viability post hatching was severely compromised in protein-free SOFaaci medium. Addition of FCS generated increased embryonic growth for the longest time period (Day 45) when compared to the other groups. Long-term survival of embryonic cells was observed stereomicroscopically by the proliferation and development of three-dimensional tubular structures to 85% confluence in culture. Haematoxylin and eosin staining of morphological structures obtained from all treatment groups revealed embryos displaying trophoblast, inner cell mass and hypoblast development to varying degrees. Regardless of treatment, extended in vitro culture did not result in development comparable with that described for in vivo embryos. In the present work, however, there was evidence of extended culture of bovine embryos beyond that achieved previously. However, further research is required to identify the exact requirements for extended in vitro culture for bovine embryos.     

胚胎植入前遗传学检测在性染色体异常夫妇助孕中的应用

目的：分析伴有性染色体异常不孕夫妇行植入前遗传学检测（preimplantation genetic testing,PGT）的结局,探讨夫妻双方之一性染色体异常导致胚胎性染色体异常的风险,以及PGT在相关人群中的应用价值。方法：回顾性分析南京医科大学第一附属医院生殖医学科伴有性染色体异常同时行PGT治疗的夫妇的胚胎染色体检测结果以及胚胎移植结局。PGT策略采用囊胚期活检,活检材料经过全基因组扩增后,采用全基因组低深度测序分析染色体拷贝数改变。在复苏周期中,统计可移植胚胎移植后的临床妊娠结局。结果：在性染色体异常的23对夫妇（其中包括47,XYY及其嵌合体6例、47,XXY及其嵌合体2例、47,XXX 4例、45,X嵌合体8例、女性X染色体节段性缺失3例）的24个促排卵周期中,共获得可检测囊胚77枚,明确诊断76枚（98.70%）,其中40枚（52.63%）为整倍体可移植胚胎,13枚（17.10%）非整倍体嵌合体胚胎,23枚（30.26%）为非整倍体不可移植胚胎。在3例X染色体节段性缺失患者中所有异常胚胎均为X染色体节段性缺失,而其他性染色体数目异常患者中共发现3枚（3.95%）性染色体嵌合体非整倍体胚胎。在18个复苏移植周期中,共获得9例（50.00%）健康活产。结论：性染色体数目非整倍体异常夫妇的胚胎性染色体异常风险较低,在辅助生殖技术助孕过程中PGT并不是必需的治疗方案;而性染色体节段性非整倍体夫妇胚胎性染色体异常风险较高,结合卵巢功能情况以及在患者充分知情同意的情况下,可酌情考虑PGT,降低后代性染色体异常风险。     

Effect of glycosaminoglycans on the preimplantation development of embryos derived from in vitro fertilization and somatic cell nuclear transfer

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) added to the culture medium on the developmental competence of bovine embryos derived from in vitro fertilization (IVF) and from somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). In vitro-matured oocytes were either inseminated with 1 x 10(6) spermatozoa mL(-1) or enucleated and reconstructed with bovine adult ear fibroblasts by SCNT. The embryos were then cultured in modified synthetic oviduct fluid (mSOF) containing 8 mg mL(-1) bovine serum albumin (BSA) (control mSOF) or control mSOF supplemented with various GAGs (hyaluronic acid, heparin or chondroitin sulfate) in a dose-dependent manner (0.1, 0.5 or 1.0 mg mL(-1)). Developmental competence was evaluated by monitoring the numbers of 2-cell embryos, 8-16-cell embryos and blastocysts. The mean cell number of flattened blastocysts stained with 5 microM bisbenzimide on Day 8 was counted. The percentage of blastocyst formation (IVF and SCNT embryos) from cleaved embryos was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in control mSOF supplemented with 0.5 mg mL(-1) hyaluronic acid (45% and 47%), heparin (40% and 47%) or chondroitin sulfate (38% and 44%) compared with control mSOF (30-31% and 30-33%). When compared with the efficacy of 0.5 mg mL(-1) GAGs, no significant differences were observed in the developmental competence of both IVF and SCNT embryos. Supplementing control mSOF with 0.5 mg mL(-1) GAGs had no effect on the cell number of IVF embryos. In contrast, supplementing 0.5 mg mL(-1) of hyaluronic acid, heparin or chondroitin sulfate to control mSOF significantly (P < 0.05) increased the numbers of total cells (93-98 v. 88 cells) and trophectoderm (TE) cells (64-66 v. 55 cells), and decreased the inner cell mass (ICM) to TE cell ratio (48.2-49.8 v. 61.3) in SCNT blastocysts compared with embryos in control mSOF. In conclusion, supplementation of culture media with GAGs may improve the development of bovine IVM-IVF and SCNT embryos to the blastocyst stage. The GAGs increased the quality of blastocysts by increasing total cell numbers in the SCNT embryos.