Impact of aquaporin-4 channels on K+ buffering and gap junction coupling in the hippocampus

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is the main water channel in the brain and primarily localized to astrocytes where the channels are thought to contribute to water and K(+) homeostasis. The close apposition of AQP4 and inward rectifier K(+) channels (Kir4.1) led to the hypothesis of direct functional interactions between both channels. We investigated the impact of AQP4 on stimulus-induced alterations of the extracellular K(+) concentration ([K(+)](o)) in murine hippocampal slices. Recordings with K(+)-selective microelectrodes combined with field potential analyses were compared in wild type (wt) and AQP4 knockout (AQP4(-/-)) mice. Astrocyte gap junction coupling was assessed with tracer filling during patch clamp recording. Antidromic fiber stimulation in the alveus evoked smaller increases and slower recovery of [K(+)](o) in the stratum pyramidale of AQP4(-/-) mice indicating reduced glial swelling and a larger extracellular space when compared with control tissue. Moreover, the data hint at an impairment of the glial Na(+)/K(+) ATPase in AQP4-deficient astrocytes. In a next step, we investigated the laminar profile of [K(+)](o) by moving the recording electrode from the stratum pyramidale toward the hippocampal fissure. At distances beyond 300 μm from the pyramidal layer, the stimulation-induced, normalized increases of [K(+)](o) in AQP4(-/-) mice exceeded the corresponding values of wt mice, indicating facilitated spatial buffering. Astrocytes in AQP4(-/-) mice also displayed enhanced tracer coupling, which might underlie the improved spatial re- distribution of [K(+)](o) in the hippocampus. These findings highlight the role of AQP4 channels in the regulation of K(+) homeostasis.     

Loss of Perivascular Kir4.1 Potassium Channels in the Sclerotic Hippocampus of Patients With Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy

ABSTRACT: Recent experimental data in mice have shown that the inwardly rectifying K channel Kir4.1 mediates K spatial buffering in the hippocampus. Here we used immunohistochemistry to examine the distribution of Kir4.1 in hippocampi from patients with medication-refractory temporal lobe epilepsy. The selectivity of the antibody was confirmed in mice with a glial conditional deletion of the gene encoding Kir4.1. These mice showed a complete loss of labeled cells, indicating that Kir4.1 is restricted to glia. In human cases, Kir4.1 immunoreactivity observed in cells morphologically consistent with astrocytes was significantly reduced in 12 patients with hippocampal sclerosis versus 11 patients without sclerosis and 4 normal autopsy controls. Loss of astrocytic Kir4.1 immunoreactivity was most pronounced around vessels and was restricted to gliotic areas. Loss of Kir4.1 expression was associated with loss of dystrophin and α-syntrophin, but not with loss of β-dystroglycan, suggesting partial disruption of the dystrophin-associated protein complex. The changes identified in patients with hippocampal sclerosis likely interfere with K homeostasis and may contribute to the epileptogenicity of the sclerotic hippocampus.     

Aquaporin-4 and epilepsy

Recent studies have implicated glial cells in modulation of synaptic transmission, so it is plausible that glial cells may have a functional role in the hyperexcitability characteristic of epilepsy. Indeed, alterations in distinct astrocyte membrane channels, receptors, and transporters have all been associated with the epileptic state. This review focuses on the potential roles of the glial water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4) in modulation of brain excitability and in epilepsy. We will review studies of mice lacking AQP4 (Aqp4(-/-) mice) or α-syntrophin (an AQP4 anchoring protein) and discuss the available human studies demonstrating alterations of AQP4 in human epilepsy tissue specimens. We will conclude with new studies of AQP4 regulation and discuss the potential role of AQP4 in the development of epilepsy (epileptogenesis). While many questions remain unanswered, the available data indicate that AQP4 and its molecular partners may represent important new therapeutic targets.     

N w‐Propyl‐l‐arginine (L‐NPA) reduces status epilepticus and early epileptogenic events in a mouse model of epilepsy: behavioural,EEG and immunohistochemical analyses

We investigated the anticonvulsant and neurobiological effects of a highly selective neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) inhibitor, N ^w‐propyl‐l ‐arginine (L‐NPA), on kainic acid (KA)‐induced status epilepticus (SE) and early epileptogenesis in C57BL/6J mice. SE was induced with 20 mg/kg KA (i.p.) and seizures terminated after 2 h with diazepam (10 mg/kg, i.p). L‐NPA (20 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle was administered 30 min before KA. Behavioural seizure severity was scored using a modified Racine score and electrographic seizure was recorded using an implantable telemetry device. Neuronal activity, activity‐dependent synaptogenesis and reactive gliosis were quantified immunohistochemically, using c‐Fos, synaptophysin and microglial and astrocytic markers. L‐NPA treatment reduced the severity and duration of convulsive motor seizures, the power of electroencephalogram in the gamma band, and the frequency of epileptiform spikes during SE. It also reduced c‐Fos expression in dentate granule cells at 2 h post‐KA, and reduced the overall rate of epileptiform spiking (by 2‐ to 2.5‐fold) in the first 7 days after KA administration. Furthermore, treatment with L‐NPA suppressed both hippocampal gliosis and activity‐dependent synaptogenesis in the outer and middle molecular layers of the dentate gyrus in the early phase of epileptogenesis (72 h post‐KA). These results suggest that nNOS facilitates seizure generation during SE and may be important for the neurobiological changes associated with the development of chronic epilepsy, especially in the early stages of epileptogenesis. As such, it might represent a novel target for disease modification in epilepsy.     

Kir4.1 channels mediate a depolarization of hippocampal astrocytes under hyperammonemic conditions in situ

Increased ammonium (NH(4) (+) ) concentration in the brain is the prime candidate responsible for hepatic encephalopathy (HE), a serious neurological disorder caused by liver failure and characterized by disturbed glutamatergic neurotransmission and impaired glial function. We investigated the mechanisms of NH(4) (+) -induced depolarization of astrocytes in mouse hippocampal slices using whole-cell patch-clamp and potassium-selective microelectrodes. At postnatal days (P) 18-21, perfusion with 5 mM NH(4) (+) evoked a transient increase in the extracellular potassium concentration ([K(+) ](o) ) by about 1 mM. Astrocytes depolarized by on average 8 mV and then slowly repolarized to a plateau depolarization of 6 mV, which was maintained during NH(4) (+) perfusion. In voltage-clamped astrocytes, NH(4) (+) induced an inward current and a reduction in membrane resistance. Amplitudes of [K(+) ](o) transients and astrocyte depolarization/inward currents increased from P3-4 to P18-21. Perfusion with 100 μM Ba(2+) did not alter [K(+) ](o) transients but strongly reduced both astrocyte depolarization and inward currents. NH(4) (+) -induced depolarization and inward currents were also virtually absent in slices from Kir4.1 -/- mice, while [K(+) ](o) transients were unaltered. Blocking Na(+) /K(+) -ATPase with ouabain caused an immediate and complex increase in [K(+) ](o) . Taken together, our results are in agreement with the hypothesis that reduced uptake of K(+) by the Na(+) , K(+) -ATPase in the presence of NH(4) (+) disturbs the extracellular K(+) homeostasis. Furthermore, astrocytes depolarize in response to the increase in [K(+) ](o) and by influx of NH(4) (+) through Kir4.1 channels. The depolarization reduces the astrocytes' capacity for channel-mediated flux of K(+) and for uptake of glutamate and might hereby contribute to the pathology of HE.     

Epileptogenesis and reduced inward rectifier potassium current in tuberous sclerosis complex-1-deficient astrocytes

PURPOSE: Individuals with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) frequently have intractable epilepsy. To gain insights into mechanisms of epileptogenesis in TSC, we previously developed a mouse model of TSC with conditional inactivation of the Tsc1 gene in glia (Tsc1(GFAP)CKO mice). These mice develop progressive seizures, suggesting that glial dysfunction may be involved in epileptogenesis in TSC. Here, we investigated the hypothesis that impairment of potassium uptake through astrocyte inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channels may contribute to epileptogenesis in Tsc1(GFAP)CKO mice. METHODS: Kir channel function and expression were examined in cultured Tsc1-deficient astrocytes. Kir mRNA expression was analyzed in astrocytes microdissected from neocortical sections of Tsc1(GFAP)CKO mice. Physiological assays of astrocyte Kir currents and susceptibility to epileptiform activity induced by increased extracellular potassium were further studied in situ in hippocampal slices. RESULTS: Cultured Tsc1-deficient astrocytes exhibited reduced Kir currents and decreased expression of specific Kir channel protein subunits, Kir2.1 and Kir6.1. mRNA expression of the same Kir subunits also was reduced in astrocytes from neocortex of Tsc1(GFAP)CKO mice. By using pharmacologic modulators of signalling pathways implicated in TSC, we showed that the impairment in Kir channel function was not affected by rapamycin inhibition of the mTOR/S6K pathway, but was reversed by decreasing CDK2 activity with roscovitine or retinoic acid. Last, hippocampal slices from Tsc1(GFAP)CKO mice exhibited decreased astrocytic Kir currents, as well as increased susceptibility to potassium-induced epileptiform activity. CONCLUSIONS: Impaired extracellular potassium uptake by astrocytes through Kir channels may contribute to neuronal hyperexcitability and epileptogenesis in a mouse model of TSC.     

The roles of aquaporin-4 in brain edema following neonatal hypoxia ischemia and reoxygenation in a cultured rat astrocyte model

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4), a water channel protein, is abundantly expressed in astrocytes and plays a key role in the development of brain edema. However, it is not clear whether AQP4 contributes to astrocytic swelling in hypoxia-ischemia (HI). To investigate the roles of AQP4 in astrocytic swelling during HI and reoxygenation, we measured AQP4 expression and astrocytic cellular volume in cultured rat astrocytes following HI and reoxygenation. RNA interference was used to knockdown AQP4 expression (AQP4(-/-)). Real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis were used to detect the inhibitory efficiency of AQP4. We found that the maximal inhibition of AQP4 mRNA and protein in astrocytes after AQP4 siRNA transfection (AQP4(-/-)) was approximately 77 and 85%, respectively, compared to wild-type AQP4 (AQP4(+/+)) expression. Cellular volume in both AQP4(-/-) and AQP4(+/+) astrocytes was significantly increased during HI compared to cells cultured in normoxia (P<0.05). However, cellular volume during HI in AQP4(-/-) astrocytes was significantly less than that in AQP4(+/+) astrocytes (P<0.05). After reoxygenation, the cellular volume gradually decreased to control levels at 7 days in AQP4(-/-) but at 5 days in AQP4(+/+) astrocytes. The different roles of AQP4 during HI and reoxygenation suggest that AQP4 knockdown may protect against water influx in the formation of astrocyte swelling during HI, and may also delay water clearance in the resolution of astrocyte swelling during reoxygenation. In conclusion, AQP4 mediates bidirectional transport of water across astrocytes during HI and reoxygenation. AQP4 manipulation may serve as a novel therapeutic strategy during different periods of hypoxic-ischemic brain edema in neonates.     

Laminin-induced aggregation of the inwardly rectifying potassium channel, Kir4.1, and the water-permeable channel, AQP4, via a dystroglycan-containing complex in astrocytes

Dystroglycan (DG) is part of a multiprotein complex that links the extracellular matrix to the actin cytoskeleton of muscle fibers and that is involved in aggregating acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. This complex is also expressed in regions of the central nervous system where it is localized to both neuronal and glial cells. DG and the inwardly rectifying potassium channels, Kir4.1, are concentrated at the interface of astroglia and small blood vessels. These channels are involved in siphoning potassium released into the extracellular space after neuronal excitation. This raises the possibility that DG may be involved in targeting Kir4.1 channels to specific domains of astroglia. To address this question, we used mixed hippocampal cultures to investigate the distribution of DG, syntrophin, dystrobrevin, and Kir4.1 channels, as well as aquaporin-permeable water channels, AQP4. These proteins exhibit a similar distribution pattern and form aggregates in astrocytes cultured on laminin. Both DG and syntrophin colocalize with Kir4.1 channel aggregates in astrocytes. Similarly, DG colocalizes with AQP4 channel aggregates. Quantitative studies show a significant increase of Kir4.1 and AQP4 channel aggregates in astrocytes cultured in the presence of laminin when compared with those in the absence of laminin. These findings show that laminin has a role in Kir4.1 and AQP4 channel aggregation and suggest that this may be mediated via a dystroglycan-containing complex. This study reveals a novel functional role for DG in brain including K+ buffering and water homeostasis.     

Upregulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype mGluR3 and mGluR5 in reactive astrocytes in a rat model of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy

Reactive gliosis is a prominent morphological feature of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Because astrocytes express glutamate receptors, we examined changes in metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) 2/3, mGluR5 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta in glial cells of the hippocampal regions in an experimental rat model of spontaneous seizures. Rats that exhibited behavioural status epilepticus (SE) directly after 1 h of electrical angular bundle stimulation, displayed chronic spontaneous seizures after a latent period of 1-2 weeks as observed using continuous electrographic monitoring. SE resulted in hypertrophy of astrocytes and microglia activation throughout the hippocampus as revealed by immunolabelling studies. A dramatic, seizure intensity-dependent increase in vimentin immunoreactivity (a marker for reactive astrocytes) was revealed in CA3 and hilar regions where prominent neuronal loss occurs. Increased vimentin labelling was first apparent 24 h after onset of SE and persisted up to 3 months. mGluR2/3 and mGluR5 protein expression increased markedly in glial cells of CA3 and hilus by 1 week after SE, and persisted up to 3 months after SE. Double immunolabelling of brain sections with vimentin confirmed co-localization with glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), mGluR2/3 and mGluR5 in reactive astrocytes. TGF-beta, a cytokine implicated in mGluR3-mediated neuroprotection, was also upregulated during the first 3 weeks after SE throughout the hippocampus. This study demonstrates seizure-induced upregulation of two mGluR subtypes in reactive astrocytes, which - together with the increased production of TGF-beta - may represent a novel mechanism for modulation of glial function and for changes in glial-neuronal communication in the course of epileptogenesis.     

Reactive microglia are the major source of tumor necrosis factor alpha and contribute to astrocyte dysfunction and acute seizures in experimental temporal lobe epilepsy

Extensive microglia reactivity has been well described in human and experimental temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). To date, however, it is not clear whether and based on which molecular mechanisms microglia contribute to the development and progression of focal epilepsy. Astroglial gap junction coupled networks play an important role in regulating neuronal activity and loss of interastrocytic coupling causally contributes to TLE. Here, we show in the unilateral intracortical kainate (KA) mouse model of TLE that reactive microglia are primary producers of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α and contribute to astrocyte dysfunction and severity of status epilepticus (SE). Immunohistochemical analyses revealed pronounced and persistent microglia reactivity, which already started 4 h after KA-induced SE. Partial depletion of microglia using a colony stimulating factor 1 receptor inhibitor prevented early astrocyte uncoupling and attenuated the severity of SE, but increased the mortality of epileptic mice following surgery. Using microglia-specific inducible TNFα knockout mice we identified microglia as the major source of TNFα during early epileptogenesis. Importantly, microglia-specific TNFα knockout prevented SE-induced gap junction uncoupling in astrocytes. Continuous telemetric EEG recordings revealed that during the first 4 weeks after SE induction, microglial TNFα did not significantly contribute to spontaneous generalized seizure activity. Moreover, the absence of microglial TNFα did not affect the development of hippocampal sclerosis but attenuated gliosis. Taken together, these data implicate reactive microglia in astrocyte dysfunction and network hyperexcitability after an epileptogenic insult.     

Epileptogenic roles of astroglial death and regeneration in the dentate gyrus of experimental temporal lobe epilepsy

Recent studies have demonstrated that blockade of neuronal death in the hippocampus cannot prevent epileptogenesis in various epileptic models. These reports indicate that neurodegeneration alone is insufficient to cause epilepsy, and that the role of astrocytes in epileptogenesis should be reconsidered. Therefore, the present study was designed to elucidate whether altered morphological organization or the functionalities of astrocytes induced by status epilepticus (SE) is responsible for epileptogenesis. Glial responses (reactive microgliosis followed by astroglial death) in the dentate gyrus induced by pilocarpine-induced SE were found to precede neuronal damage and these alterations were closely related to abnormal neurotransmission related to altered vesicular glutamate and GABA transporter expressions, and mossy fiber sprouting in the dentate gyrus. In addition, newly generated astrocytes showed down-regulated expressions of glutamine synthase, glutamate dehydrogenase, and glial GABA transporter. Taken together, our findings suggest that glial responses after SE may contribute to epileptogenesis and the acquisition of the properties of the epileptic hippocampus. Thus, we believe that it is worth considering new therapeutic approaches to epileptogenesis involving targeting the inactivation of microglia and protecting against astroglial loss.     

Extrahippocampal high‐frequency oscillations during epileptogenesis

The current study aimed to investigate the spatial and temporal patterns of high‐frequency oscillations (HFOs) in the intra‐/extrahippocampal areas during epileptogenesis. Local field potentials were bilaterally recorded from hippocampus (CA1), thalamus, motor cortex, and prefrontal cortex in 13 rats before and after intrahippocampal kainic acid (KA) lesions. HFOs in the ripple (100‐200 Hz) and fast ripple (250‐500 Hz) ranges were detected and their rates were computed during different time periods (1‐5 weeks) after KA‐induced status epilepticus (SE). Recurrent spontaneous seizures were observed in 7 rats after SE, and the other 6 rats did not develop epilepsy. During the latent period, the rate of hippocampal HFOs increased at the ipsilateral site of the KA lesion in both groups, and the HFO rate was significantly higher in the animals that later developed epilepsy. Animals that later developed epilepsy also demonstrated widespread appearance of HFOs, in both the ripple and the fast ripple range, whereas animals that did not develop epilepsy only exhibited changes in the ipsilateral intrahippocampal HFO rate. This study demonstrates an association between an increased rate of widespread HFOs and the later development of epilepsy, suggesting the formation of large‐scale distributed pathological networks during epileptogenesis.     

Aquaporin-4 independent Kir4.1 K+ channel function in brain glial cells

Functional interaction of glial water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4) and inwardly rectifying K+ channel Kir4.1 has been suggested from their apparent colocalization and biochemical interaction, and from the slowed glial cell K+ uptake in AQP4-deficient brain. Here, we report multiple lines of evidence against functionally significant AQP4-Kir4.1 interactions. Whole-cell patch-clamp of freshly isolated glial cells from brains of wild-type and AQP4 null mice showed no significant differences in membrane potential, barium-sensitive Kir4.1 K+ current or current-voltage curves. Single-channel patch-clamp showed no differences in Kir4.1 unitary conductance, voltage-dependent open probability or current-voltage relationship. Also, Kir4.1 protein expression and distribution were similar in wild-type and AQP4 null mouse brain and in the freshly isolated glial cells. Functional inhibition of Kir4.1 by barium or RNAi knock-down in primary glial cell cultures from mouse brain did not significantly alter AQP4 water permeability, as assayed by calcein fluorescence quenching following osmotic challenge. These studies provide direct evidence against functionally significant AQP4-Kir4.1 interactions in mouse glial cells, indicating the need to identify new mechanism(s) to account for altered seizure dynamics and extracellular space K+ buffering in AQP4 deficiency.     

Loss of astrocyte polarization in the tg-ArcSwe mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is the predominant water channel in brain and is selectively expressed in astrocytes. Astrocytic endfoot membranes exhibit tenfold higher densities of AQP4 than non-endfoot membranes, making AQP4 an excellent marker of astrocyte polarization. Loss of astrocyte polarization is known to compromise astrocytic function and to be associated with impaired water and K+ homeostasis. Here we investigate by a combination of light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry whether amyloid deposition is associated with a loss of astrocyte polarization, using AQP4 as a marker. We used the tg-ArcSwe mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, as this model displays perivascular plaques as well as plaques confined to the neuropil. 3D reconstructions were done to establish the spatial relation between plaques and astrocytic endfeet, the latter known to contain the perivascular pool of AQP4. Changes in AQP4 expression emerge just after the appearance of the first plaques. Typically, there is a loss of AQP4 from endfoot membranes at sites of perivascular amyloid deposits, combined with an upregulation of AQP4 in the neuropil surrounding plaques. By electron microscopy it could be verified that the upregulation reflects an increased concentration of AQP4 in those delicate astrocytic processes that abound in synaptic regions. Thus, astrocytes exhibit a redistribution of AQP4 from endfoot membranes to non-endfoot membrane domains. The present data suggest that the development of amyloid deposits is associated with a loss of astrocyte polarization. The possible perturbation of water and K+ homeostasis could contribute to cognitive decline and seizure propensity in patients with Alzheimer's disease.     

Down-regulation of Kir4.1 in the cerebral cortex of rats with liver failure and in cultured astrocytes treated with glutamine: Implications for astrocytic dysfunction in hepatic encephalopathy

Brain edema in acute hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is due mainly to swelling of astrocytes. Efflux of potassium is implicated in the prevention of glial swelling under hypoosmotic conditions. We investigated whether pathogenic factors of HE, glutamine (Gln) and/or ammonia, induce alterations in the expression of glial potassium channels (Kir4.1, Kir2.1) and Na(+) -K(+) -2Cl(-) cotransporter-1 (NKCC1) in rat cerebral cortex and cultured rat cortical astrocytes and whether these alterations have consequences for potassium efflux and astrocytic swelling. Thioacetamide-induced acute liver failure in rats resulted in significant decreases in the Kir4.1 mRNA and protein contents of cerebral cortex, whereas expression of Kir2.1 and NKCC1 remained unaltered. Incubation of primary cortical astrocytes for 72 hr in the presence of Gln (5 mM), but not of ammonia (5 mM or 10 mM), induced a decrease in the levels of Kir4.1 mRNA and protein. Similarly to incubation with Gln, reduction of Kir4.1 mRNA expression by RNA interference caused swelling of astrocytes as shown by confocal imaging followed by 3D computational analysis. Gln reduced the astrocytic uptake of D-[(3) H]aspartate, but, in contrast to the earlier reported effect of ammonia, this reduction was not accompanied by decreased expression of the astrocytic glutamate transporter GLT-1 mRNA. Both Gln and ammonia decreased hypoosmolarity-induced (86) Rb efflux from the cells, but the effect was more pronounced with Gln. The results indicate that down-regulation of Kir4.1 may mediate distinct aspects of Gln-induced astrocytic dysfunction in HE.     

Innate and adaptive immunity during epileptogenesis and spontaneous seizures: evidence from experimental models and human temporal lobe epilepsy

We investigated the activation of the IL-1 beta system and markers of adaptive immunity in rat brain during epileptogenesis using models of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). The same inflammatory markers were studied in rat chronic epileptic tissue and in human TLE with hippocampal sclerosis (HS). IL-1 beta was expressed by both activated microglia and astrocytes within 4 h from the onset of status epilepticus (SE) in forebrain areas recruited in epileptic activity; however, only astrocytes sustained inflammation during epileptogenesis. Activation of the IL-1 beta system during epileptogenesis was associated with neurodegeneration and blood-brain barrier breakdown. In rat and human chronic epileptic tissue, IL-1 beta and IL-1 receptor type 1 were broadly expressed by astrocytes, microglia and neurons. Granulocytes appeared transiently in rat brain during epileptogenesis while monocytes/macrophages were present in the hippocampus from 18 h after SE onset until chronic seizures develop, and they were found also in human TLE hippocampi. In rat and human epileptic tissue, only scarce B- and T-lymphocytes and NK cells were found mainly associated with microvessels. These data show that specific inflammatory pathways are chronically activated during epileptogenesis and they persist in chronic epileptic tissue, suggesting they may contribute to the etiopathogenesis of TLE.     

Altered blood-brain barrier integrity in adult aquaporin-4 knockout mice

To investigate the role of astroglial water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4) in maintaining blood-brain barrier integrity, structure and permeability of the brain microvessels were investigated in adult AQP4 knockout mice. Altered ultrastructure of brain microvessels, including open tight junctions and swollen perivascular astrocytic endfeet, were frequently observed in the AQP4 null mice. Likewise, AQP4 deficiency significantly downregulated expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in perivascular processes of astrocytes. Furthermore, the horseradish peroxidase analysis demonstrated hyperpermeability of the blood-brain barrier in AQP4 knockout mice. These findings provide direct evidence that AQP4 is essential for the maintenance of blood-brain barrier integrity.     

Changes in the astrocytic aquaporin‐4 and inwardly rectifying potassium channel expression in the brain of the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis SOD1G93A rat model

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease affecting upper and lower motor neurons. Dysfunction and death of motor neurons are closely related to the modified astrocytic environment. Astrocytic endfeet, lining the blood–brain barrier (BBB), are enriched in two proteins, aquaporin‐4 (AQP4) and inwardly rectifying potassium channel (Kir) 4.1. Both channels are important for the maintainance of a functional BBB astrocytic lining. In this study, expression levels of AQP4 and Kir4.1 were for the first time examined in the brainstem and cortex, along with the functional properties of Kir channels in cultured cortical astrocytes of the SOD1^G93A rat model of ALS. Western blot analysis showed increased expression of AQP4 and decreased expression of Kir4.1 in the brainstem and cortex of the ALS rat. In addition, higher immunoreactivity of AQP4 and reduced immunolabeling of Kir4.1 in facial and trigeminal nuclei as well as in the motor cortex were also observed. Particularly, the observed changes in the expression of both channels were retained in cultured astrocytes. Furthermore, whole‐cell patch‐clamp recordings from cultured ALS cortical astrocytes showed a significantly lower Kir current density. Importantly, the potassium uptake current in ALS astrocytes was significantly reduced at all extracellular potassium concentrations. Consequently, the Kir‐specific Cs⁺‐ and Ba²⁺‐sensitive currents were also decreased. The changes in the studied channels, notably at the upper CNS level, could underline the hampered ability of astrocytes to maintain water and potassium homeostasis, thus affecting the BBB, disturbing the neuronal microenvironment, and causing motoneuronal dysfunction and death. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Significant effects of sex,strain, and anesthesia in the intrahippocampal kainate mouse model of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy

The intrahippocampal kainate mouse model of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is increasingly being used for studies on epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenesis. Almost all previous studies used male mice for this purpose, and no study is available in this or other models of acquired epilepsy that directly compared epileptogenesis in female and male rodents. Epidemiological studies suggest that gender may affect susceptibility to epilepsy and its prognosis; therefore, one goal of this study was to investigate whether sex has an influence on latent period and epileptogenesis in the intrahippocampal kainate model in mice. Another aspect that was examined in the present study was whether mouse strain differences in epileptogenesis exist. Finally, we examined the effects of different types of anesthesia (chloral hydrate, isoflurane) on kainate-induced status epilepticus (SE) and epileptogenesis. Continuous (24/7) video-EEG monitoring was used during SE and the 2 weeks following SE as well as 4–6 weeks after SE. In male NMRI mice with chloral hydrate anesthesia during kainate injection, SE was followed by a seizure-free latent period of 10–14 days if hippocampal paroxysmal discharges (HPDs) recorded from the kainate focus were considered the onset of epilepsy. Anesthesia with isoflurane led to a more rapid onset and higher severity of SE, and not all male NMRI mice exhibited a seizure-free latent period. Female NMRI mice differed from male animals in the lack of any clear latent period, independently of anesthesia type. Furthermore, HPDs were only rarely observed. These problems were not resolved by decreasing the dose of kainate or using other strains (C57BL/6, FVB/N) of female mice. The present data are the first to demonstrate marked sex-related differences in the latent period following brain injury in a rodent model of acquired epilepsy. Furthermore, our data demonstrate that the choice of anesthestic agent during kainate administration affects SE severity and as a consequence, the latent period, which may explain some of the differences reported for this model in the literature.