Prevalence and Correlates of HCV,HVB, and HIV Infection among Prison Inmates and Staff,Hungary

The aim of this national, multicenter, cross-sectional study was to assess the prevalence of hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV), and human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) among prisoners, and to identify related risk behaviors including injection drug use. Overall, 4,894 inmates from 20 prisons were enrolled. To have a comparison group, prison staff were also asked to take part. Altogether, 1,553 of the 4,894 inmates from seven prisons completed a questionnaire on risk behaviors. According to the survey, 1.5%, 4.9%, and 0.04% of the prisoners were tested positive for HBsAg, anti-HCV and anti-HIV, respectively. These prevalence data are among the lowest reported from prisons worldwide, although comparable to the Central European data. The prevalence of HBV, HCV, and HIV in the Hungarian prison staff was low (0.38%, 0.47%, and 0%, respectively). The rate of HCV infection was significantly higher among inmates who have ever injected drugs (22.5%) than among inmates who reported they had never injected drugs (1.1%). This first prevalence study of illegal drug injection-related viral infections among Hungarian prisoners points out that ever injecting drugs is the main reason for HCV infection among inmates. The opportunity to reach drug users infected with HCV for treatment underlines the importance of screening programs for blood-borne viruses in prisons.     

Surveillance of HIV infection and related risk behaviour in European prisons. A multicentre pilot study

BACKGROUND: In order to demonstrate the feasibility of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and related risk behaviour surveillance in European prisons, a multicentre pilot study was undertaken. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was carried out in six European prisons (France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Scotland and Sweden). Inmates were invited to complete a self-administered and anonymous questionnaire and to give a saliva sample in order to test for HIV antibodies. RESULTS: Eight hundred and forty-seven out of 1,124 inmates participated in the survey (response rate 75%). Saliva from 817 inmates (73%) was collected and processed for HIV antibodies. Twenty-seven per cent reported that they had ever injected drugs and 49% of these reported they had injected whilst in prison. Eighteen per cent of inmates reported that they had been tattooed whilst in prison, which was found to be higher among injecting drug users (IDUs). One and sixteen per cent reported that they had ever had homosexual and heterosexual intercourse in prison respectively. The HIV prevalence among IDUs was 4% (versus 1% among non-IDUs) (p = 0.02). The proportions of inmates previously tested for hepatitis C and vaccinated against hepatitis B were 24 and 16% respectively. CONCLUSION: This survey demonstrates the feasibility of cross-sectional surveys in European prison inmates and highlights the importance of surveillance of HIV prevalence and related risk behaviour among inmates. The continuing high HIV prevalence and potential for HIV spread in prisons should encourage decision makers in implementing or enhancing harm reduction and education programmes and substance abuse treatment services in prison.     

Behavior associated with HIV and HCV infection in female prison inmates in São Paulo, Brazil

An increase has been observed in AIDS and hepatitis C cases in women, including female prison inmates. This study focused on inmates' behavioral factors associated with risk of HIV and HCV transmission in a women's detention facility in S?o Paulo, Brazil. Behavioral questionnaires were applied and HIV and HCV serology were performed. The selected measure of association was odds ratio for both the bi and multivariate logistic regression analyses. 290 inmates participated in the study. HIV and HCV prevalence rates were 13.9% and 16.2%, respectively. Statistically significant associations were observed (p < 0.05) between HIV and the following variables: partner with AIDS OR = 6.9 (2.7-35.2); injection drug users (IDU) OR = 3.3 (1.6-14.7); regular partner OR = 3.7 (1.5-8.3), and between HCV and: IDU OR = 13.7 (4.4-42.7); IDU partner OR = 4.9 (1.9-12.2); previous arrest OR = 2.8 (1.2-6.5) adjusted for: partner with AIDS, IDU, IDU partner, drug user, and previous arrest. In conclusion, parenteral risk was associated with HIV and HCV infection and sexual risk with HIV. Appropriate and continuous preventive programs are recommended in the prison.     

Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes of inmates towards AIDS and HIV infection: a survey in a Marseille penitentiary center]

BACKGROUND: The objectives of our study were to evaluate knowledge, attitudes and beliefs of inmates toward HIV infection, and to compare them with those reported in the general population and according to injecting drug use. METHODS: Three hundred and seventy persons incarcerated in the prison of Marseille were invited, between December 1995 and March 1997, to answer a voluntary questionnaire offered by an independent staff. Odds ratios were estimated by logistic regression models adjusting for age, sex and type of questionnaire (self-administered for literate, face-to-face for illiterate inmates). The average scores among injecting and non injecting drug users (IDUs) were compared by analysis of variance adjusting for age, sex and type of questionnaire. These scores were also compared with those reported in a national survey (ACSF 1994), after adjustment for age, sex and educational level. RESULTS: The participation rate was 55%. Among the 202 participants, 152 answered a self-administered and 50 a face-to-face questionnaire; 45/202 (22%) were IDUs. The average scores of knowledge and tolerance towards HIV infected people were lower among inmates than in the general population. Furthermore, the scores of uncertainty towards HIV risk and unfavorable opinions about condom were higher than in the general population. While the average scores of knowledge, uncertainty towards HIV risk and unfavorable opinions did not differ between IDUs and non-IDUs, the score of tolerance towards HIV infected people was lower among non-IDUs than IDUs. CONCLUSION: That study shows that in spite of the high prevalence of at risk behaviors among people who are incarcerated, that population is not targeted enough by HIV prevention programs. Furthermore, the low level of tolerance towards HIV infected people among inmates, especially non-IDUs, is very likely an obstacle to health care management in that population with a high HIV prevalence. It is urgent to enhance the equality of access to care and prevention policy inside and outside prison.     

Prevalence and incidence of HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infections among males in Rhode Island prisons

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated prevalence and intraprison incidence of HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infections among male prison inmates. METHODS: We observed intake prevalence for 4269 sentenced inmates at the Rhode Island Adult Correctional Institute between 1998 and 2000 and incidence among 446 continuously incarcerated inmates (incarcerated for 12 months or more). RESULTS: HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus prevalences were 1.8%, 20.2%, and 23.1%, respectively. Infections were significantly associated with injection drug use (odds ratio = 10.1, 7.9, and 32.4). Incidence per 100 person-years was 0 for HIV, 2.7 for HBV, and 0.4 for HCV. CONCLUSIONS: High infection prevalence among inmates represents a significant community health issue. General disease prevention efforts must include prevention within correctional facilities. The high observed intraprison incidence of HBV underscores the need to vaccinate prison populations.     

Knowledge and attitudes of prison staff towards HIV/AIDS: a European study

The goal of this European pilot study was to evaluate the knowledge, attitudes and beliefs of prison staff from five countries towards HIV infection and to identify factors related to the potential discrimination of HIV-positive inmates. The survey revealed that the levels of knowledge with regard to HIV transmission and the degrees of tolerance varied significantly between prisons. A large proportion of staff overestimated the prevalence of HIV in their prison and feared being contaminated. The willingness of the staff to know the inmates' HIV seropositive status was negatively correlated to their level of tolerance; however, it was positively correlated to their knowledge of the modes of HIV transmission. This study underlines the necessity to improve HIV/AIDS prevention policy for prison staff in order to strengthen good practice in terms of managing the risk of contamination and hindering discrimination.     

Drug use and risk of bloodborne infections: a survey of female prisoners in British Columbia

BACKGROUND: Clinicians working in a women's prison in British Columbia observed hepatitis C sero-conversion among inmates, prompting this study to determine: the characteristics of women who do and do not report illicit drug use in prison; patterns of drug use inside prison; factors associated with illicit drug use that might contribute to bloodborne transmission inside prison. METHODS: A cross-sectional observational data set was created using an anonymous 61-item self-administered survey. RESULTS: Eighty-three percent (104/126) of eligible inmates participated. Seventy-four percent (77/104) reported their current prison sentence was related to illicit drug use and 25% (26/104) reported their ethnicity as Aboriginal. Ninety-three percent (97/104) reported a prior history of illicit drug use, of whom 70% (68/97) reported a history of injection drug use. Thirty-six percent (37/104) reported illicit drug use in prison, and 21% (22/104) reported injection drug use in prison. Fifty-two percent (54/104) reported hepatitis C sero-positivity, and 8% (8/104) reported HIV sero-positivity. Of the 22 women who reported prison injection drug use, 91% (20/22) reported hepatitis C infection and 86% (19/22) reported injecting with shared needles inside prison, with or without bleach cleaning. Women were more likely to report illicit drug use in prison if they had had illegal sources of income prior to incarceration (p=0.0081, OR 3.19), had previously injected drugs (p=0.036, OR 2.97), and had first injected drugs at a friend's house (p=0.066, OR 2.70). INTERPRETATION: The majority of women reporting prison injection drug use also reported hepatitis C sero-positivity and shared needle use. Canadian prisons are risk situations for transmission of bloodborne pathogens, and provide opportunities for harm reduction strategies.     

Correlation between HIV and HCV in Brazilian prisoners: evidence for parenteral transmission inside prison

OBJECTIVE: It is an accepted fact that confinement conditions increase the risk of some infections related to sexual and/or injecting drugs practices. Mathematical techniques were applied to estimate time-dependent incidence densities of HIV infection among inmates. METHODS: A total of 631 prisoners from a Brazilian prison with 4,900 inmates at that time were interviewed and their blood drawn. Risky behavior for HIV infection was analyzed, and serological tests for HIV, hepatitis C and syphilis were performed, intended as surrogates for parenteral and sexual HIV transmission, respectively. Mathematical techniques were used to estimate the incidence density ratio, as related to the time of imprisonment. RESULTS: Prevalence were: HIV - 16%; HCV - 34%; and syphilis - 18%. The main risk behaviors related to HIV infection were HCV prevalence (OR=10.49) and the acknowledged use of injecting drugs (OR=3.36). Incidence density ratio derivation showed that the risk of acquiring HIV infection increases with the time of imprisonment, peaking around three years after incarceration. CONCLUSIONS: The correlation between HIV and HCV seroprevalence and the results of the mathematical analysis suggest that HIV transmission in this population is predominantly due to parenteral exposure by injecting drug, and that it increases with time of imprisonment.     

Seroprevalence of HIV, HCV and syphilis in Brazilian prisoners: Preponderance of parenteral transmission

Between November 1993 and April 1994, our physicians' team interviewed and took blood samples of 631 prisoners randomly drawn from the largest prison of South America, which counted about 4700 inmates at that time. The interview consisted of questions related to risk behaviour for HIV infection, and the subjects were asked to provide blood for serological tests for HIV, hepatitis C and syphilis. Our main purpose was to investigate the relationship between HCV and injecting drug use as related to HIV seropositivity. Participation in the study was voluntary and confidentiality was guaranteed. Overall prevalences found were as follows: HIV: 16% (95% confidence interval (CI): 13–19%); HCV: 34% (95% CI: 30–38%), and syphilis: 18% (95% CI: 15–21%). Acknowledged use of ever injecting drug was 22% and no other parenteral risk was reported. Our results, as compared with other studies in the same prison, suggest that HIV prevalence has been stable in recent years, and that the major risk factor for HIV infection in this population is parenteral exposure by injecting drug use.     

Prevalence of hepatitis C in a German prison for young men in relation to country of birth

A high prevalence of hepatitis C (HCV) virus infection of up to 80% has been reported for injecting drug users (IDUs) in prison communities. However, there are only very limited data available on the prevalence and course of HCV in young offenders. We performed a study on hepatitis C markers in the largest German Young Offenders' Institution (YOI), a prison for men (aged 16-24 years). In 2002, all 1176 incoming offenders were asked to participate in the study of whom >95% agreed. Ninety-seven inmates (8.6%) tested positive for anti-HCV or HCV RNA, 79% of whom were viraemic. None of the patients had evidence of cirrhosis at presentation. Interestingly, six individuals (6%) tested positive for HCV RNA in the absence of anti-HCV antibodies, four of whom cleared HCV spontaneously during follow-up without either clinical signs of acute hepatitis or developing HCV antibodies. Hepatitis C markers were significantly more prevalent among immigrants from the former Soviet Union (NIS) than among German inmates (31% vs. 6% respectively, P<0.0001). HIV co-infection was found in five individuals, all of whom were German. In contrast, hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) was detected in five NIS immigrants, one Lebanese and one German inmate. HCV genotypes 2 and 3 were more prevalent in immigrants than in German inmates, while biochemical parameters did not differ significantly between the two groups. In conclusion, the prevalence of hepatitis C was relatively low among inmates of German YOIs although there were significant differences in relation to the country of birth. Our data highlight the need for educational programmes for young offenders in order to prevent the further spread of HCV.     

AIDS education and incarcerated women: a neglected opportunity

Attitudes and perceptions about health, AIDS, and the need for AIDS education were explored among inmates in a women's prison in the southeastern U.S. Forty short-term inmates participated in a series of focus group interviews. A separate sample of sixteen women completed a 103-item questionnaire. Focus group participants expressed concern about AIDS within prison, sexual activity between inmates, and the institution's policy of housing seropositive women with the general inmate population. Close to half (44%) of the survey respondents believe that they were likely to be exposed to HIV in prison; most (81%) felt that AIDS education programs should discuss female homosexual activity, and nearly all respondents (94%) felt that inmates should be given an HIV antibody test upon entering prison. The study's findings confirm the need for tailoring AIDS education and prevention activities for incarcerated women.     

The 2004 Australian prison entrants' blood-borne virus and risk behaviour survey

OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence of blood-borne viruses and associated risk factors among prison entrants at seven Australian prisons across four States. DESIGN: Consecutive cross-sectional design. Voluntary confidential testing of all prison entrants for serological markers of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C (HCV) and hepatitis B (HBV) over 14 consecutive days in May 2004. Demographic data and data related to risks for blood-borne virus transmission, such as sexual activity, body piercing, tattooing, and injecting drug use, were collected. RESULTS: National prevalence for HIV was 1%, hepatitis B core antibody 20%, and hepatitis C antibody 34%. Fifty-nine per cent of participants had a history of injecting drug use. Among injecting drug users, the prevalence of HIV was 1%, hepatitis C antibody 56%, and hepatitis B core antibody 27%. Forty-one per cent of those screened reported a previous incarceration. In the multivariate model, Queensland and Western Australian (WA) prison entrants were significantly less likely to test positive to HCV than those in New South Wales (NSW). Amphetamine was the most commonly injected drug in Queensland, Tasmania and WA. In NSW, heroin was the most common drug injected. In the multivariate analysis a history of injecting drug use, being aged 30 years or more, and a prior incarceration were positively associated with hepatitis C infection. For hepatitis B core antibody, age over 30 years and a history of injecting drug use were associated with an increased risk. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the view that prisoner populations are vulnerable to blood-borne virus infection, particularly hepatitis B and C. Prisoner populations should be included in routine surveillance programs so as to provide a more representative picture of blood-borne virus epidemiology in Australia.     

Prevalence and incidence of bloodborne viral infections among Danish prisoners

In order to determine the prevalence and incidence of bloodborne viral infections among prisoners, we conducted a prospective study in a Danish medium security prison for males. The prisoners were offered an interview and blood test for hepatitis and human immunodeficiency virus HIV at inclusion as well as at release from prison or end of study. Of 403 prisoners available 325 (79%) participated in the initial survey and for 142 (44%) a follow-up test was available. 43% (140/325) of the participants were injecting drug users (IDUs) of whom 64% were positive for hepatitis B (HBV) and 87% for hepatitis C (HCV) markers. No cases of HIV or human T lymphotropic virus (HTLV) were found. 32% of all prisoners could transmit HBV and/or HCV by blood contact. 70% of IDUs had shared injecting equipment, and 60% had injected inside prison. Only 2% of IDUs were vaccinated against HBV. Duration of injecting drug use, numbers of imprisonments, and injecting in prison were independently and positively associated with the presence of HBV antibodies among IDUs by logistic regression analysis. The HBV incidence was 16/100 PY (95% CI: 2–56/100 PY) and the HCV incidence 25/100 PY (1–140) among injecting drug users (IDUs). We conclude that IDUs in prison have an incidence of hepatitis B and C 100 times higher than reported in the general Danish population. They should be vaccinated against hepatitis B and new initiatives to stop sharing of injecting equipment in and outside prison is urgently needed.     

2010-2012年南京市浦口区吸毒人群艾滋病哨点监测分析

目的了解南京市浦口区吸毒人群艾滋病相关知识行为及HIV/HCV/梅毒感染现况。方法 2010-2012年根据《全国艾滋病哨点监测实施方案》要求,每年随机选取浦口区戒毒所新羁押吸毒人群400名进行问卷调查以及HIV/HCV/梅毒抗体检测。结果监测对象羁押前吸食的毒品主要为海洛因和冰毒,分别占71.1%、25.8%;注射吸毒者占46.8%,其中曾共用针具者占35.8%;发生过商业性行为者占12.8%,其中每次均使用安全套的比例为86.3%。3年间吸毒人群主要吸食海洛因的比例在逐年下降,而吸食冰毒的比例在逐年上升,注射吸毒比例呈逐年下降趋势(P0.001)。吸毒人群艾滋病知识的知晓率为99.4%,HIV、梅毒、HCV抗体阳性率分别为0.3%、7.6%、47.0%。有注射吸毒史者HCV抗体阳性率(61.7%)显著高于无注射吸毒史者(33.4%)(P0.001)。结论浦口区吸毒人群HIV感染率较低,但HCV感染率较高。注射吸毒比例呈现逐年下降趋势,但存在一定比例的共针行为。应继续对该人群进行艾滋病宣传教育及行为干预,加大监测力度。     

'In But Free' - an HIV/AIDS intervention in an African prison

Unprotected male to male sex, sharing of razor blades, tattooing and injecting drug use have been recognized as risk factors for HIV transmission at Kamfinsa Prison in Zambia. Beginning July 1995, an intervention called 'In But Free' and led by inmates trained as peer educators (PEs) has been implemented at the prison. Activities include face-to-face information giving, provision of HIV/AIDS educational materials, distribution of scissors, voluntary HIV counselling and testing and the promotion of better standards of hygiene. No condoms have been distributed. The project has been well received by inmates and staff. A total of 119 PEs have been trained and hold regular meetings with other inmates. Sixty pairs of scissors have been made available. Reports from inmates and staff indicate a reduction in tattooing and injecting drug use but male-to-male sex and the sharing of razor blades continues. HIV testing shows prevalence rates of 75% compared to the national average of 19% in adults. These findings suggest that the risk of HIV transmission at the prison is still high and measures to address this situation are urgently needed. Condom distribution in prisons must now be considered as well as steps to improve the poor living conditions in most Zambian prisons.     

Tips for starting a peer education program for inmates

Peer education programs have met with some success in changing HIV risk behaviors in the prison setting. Peer educators effectively communicate with other inmates about how the virus is spread and what can be done to reduce the risk of infection. Properly trained, peer educators may be more credible and relevant with inmates. Prisons can initiate a peer education program with the help of outside AIDS service agencies, through grant opportunities, and by establishing links with prison advocacy groups. The language and cultural differences in prison populations should be considered. Prison officials should recruit a mix of HIV-positive individuals, HIV-negative individuals, and those with a history of injection drug use to be trained for the peer educator positions.     

Risk behaviours and seroprevalence to HIV, HBV and HCV in patients of the AIDS information and prevention center in Valencia, Spain

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to describe the sociodemographic and serologic profiles in a first time consultant population at the Information and AIDS Prevention Center of Valencia (Spain). In addition, the HIV infection risk factors were analyzed. METHOD: A cross-sectional study was performed on 1,573 persons who consulted during the year 1995. Sociodemographic and infection risk practices data were recorded and serologic information about HIV, HBV and HCV infection were obtained. Exact binomial method with a 95% interval confidence was used to calculate infection prevalence and the chi square test to make comparisons between qualitative variables. RESULTS: Sex distribution was 66,1% males and 31,9% females; mean age was 29,01 (SD: 9.2) years. Sexual intercourse without condom (25.2%) and parenteral drug abusers (22.6%) were the more frequent risk groups seeking consultation about HIV infection. Global HIV infection prevalence was 12.7% (95% CI= 11,2-14,5%). Among HIV seropositive patients, sexual transmission accounted for 30.8% of cases, of which 69.4% were heterosexual relations. The HIV infection prevalence for different risk groups were the following: parenteral drug abusers 36.8% (95% CI= 31,7-42%), heterosexual intercourse with an HIV-infected partner 24.1% (95% CI= 17,1-32,2%) and homosexual intercourse between men 9,5% (95% CI= 5,8-14,5%). HCV antibody prevalence for parenteral drug abusers was 81.2% (95% CI= 76,7-85,1%). Risk practices with a statistically significant association with HIV infection were: being an injecting drug abuser, as well as having an HIV infected and/or a injecting drug abuser partner. CONCLUSIONS: Drug parenteral abusers are still the target population for prevention programs. Data suggest that prevention and sexual education programs must continue. The main effort should be focused on the young population and on sexual partners of injecting drug abusers and/or HIV seropositive partners.     

Risk factors for hepatitis C infection and perception of antibody status among male prison inmates in the hepatitis C incidence and transmission in prisons study cohort,Australia

The objective of this study was to compare the prevalence of risk factors for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among male prison inmates enrolling into a prospective cohort in Australia. We tested 121 inmates who were previously untested or were previously known to be anti-HCV antibody negative for anti-HCV antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. HCV-positive inmates were classified as cases (n=25) and HCV-negative inmates as controls (n=96). The study found that cases were less educated than controls and confirmed that prior imprisonment, drug injection, and a longer duration of injecting were risk factors for HCV infection. More than half of those who tested HCV positive perceived that they did not have HCV infection, and 44% were unsure of their HCV status. Those inmates who were incorrect about their HCV status tended to be less educated and were more likely to have been previously imprisoned than those who were correct about their HCV status. Inmates who were unsure of their HCV status were less likely to have been tested for HCV than those who had a clear perception of their HCV status, even if incorrect. Three (12%) inmates who tested positive denied injecting drug use, but reported other risk factors. Prisons are likely to remain an important site for the diagnosis of HCV infection and targeted interventions aimed at risk reduction among inmates with low education levels and a previous imprisonment history. In addition to the authors, the members of the Hepatitis C Incidence and Transmission in Prisons Study (HITS) group at the time of the study are as follows: Michael Levy, Marian Gray, Deanne Wood, Susan Harper (Corrections Health Service, New South Wales); Rosemary A. Ffrench (Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Sydney Children's Hospital, Randwick, Australia); Anthony J. Freeman, Charles E. Harvey, George Marinos (Viral Hepatitis Research Unit, Gastrointestinal and Liver Unit, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, Australia); William D. Rawlinson, Peter A. White (Virology Research Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, South Eastern Area Laboratory Services, Randwick, Australia); Patricia Palladinetti (Inflammation Research Unit, Department of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia); Jenean Spencer (National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research, University of New South Wales, Sydney); Sophie DeKantzow, Joanne Micallef (Virology Research Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, South Eastern Area Laboratory Services, Randwick).     

工厂外来女工艾滋病干预前后分析

目的 了解珠江三角洲工厂外来女工艾滋病相关知识、态度、信念、行为(KABP)，评价艾滋病干预效果。方法 采用面对面匿名同卷法，对珠江三角洲某市4个制衣厂的外来女工进行基线调查，并对该人群进行艾滋病综合措施干预，干预后再进行调查。结果 工厂外来女工对艾滋病缺乏基本了解，艾滋病传播途径和预防方法的知晓率均较低，安全套使用率低，是艾滋病的脆弱人群。经干预，工厂外来女工的艾滋病传播途径和预防方法的知晓率均显著提高，安全性行为率增高，安全套使用率增高。结论 干预取得明显效果。     

U.S. prisons fail to adopt proven prevention measures, experts say

Speakers at the 9th National AIDS Update Conference discussed the incidence and prevalence of HIV/AIDS among prison inmates and the lack of prevention, education, and intervention for this high-risk group. The conference addressed HIV/AIDS in correctional facilities because public health professionals and advocates agree that the problem has been largely ignored to date. The U.S. lags behind other industrial countries in offering harm-reduction programs to inmates. The presenters advocated the implementation of needle-exchange, drug treatment programs, and enhanced education programs.