An Exploratory study of compliance with dietary recommendations among college students majoring in health-related disciplines: application of the transtheoretical model

Compliance with food group and nutrient recommendations, and self-efficacy, stage of change, perceived barriers and benefits for healthy eating were assessed among a convenience sample of college students majoring in health-related disciplines. Dietary and psychosocial data were collected using three-day food records and scales, respectively. Means (SD), frequencies, and percents were calculated on all data, and logistic regressions were used to determine whether any of the psychosocial correlates predicted the stage of change for healthy eating. Noncompliance with food group recommendations ranged from 53% for the meat/meat alternates group to 93% for the vegetables/juice group, whereas noncompliance with nutrient recommendations ranged from 26% for cholesterol to 99% for potassium. A majority of students (57%) self-classified in the preaction and 40% in the action stages of change for eating healthy. The students'' self-efficacy to eat healthy was highest in positive/social situations and lowest when experiencing emotional upset. The most important perceived barrier to healthy eating was that friends/roommates do not like to eat healthy foods, and the most important perceived benefit was that eating healthy foods provides the body with adequate nutrients. The difficult/inconvenient self-efficacy subscale predicted the stage of change for healthy eating. These students would benefit from interactive learning opportunities that teach how to purchase and prepare more whole grain foods, fruits, and vegetables, enhance their self-efficacy for making healthy food choices when experiencing negative emotions, and overcome perceived barriers to healthy eating.     

Perceived Barriers Mediate the Association between Self-Efficacy and Fruit and Vegetable Consumption among Students Attending Alternative High Schools

Compared to students attending regular high schools, alternative high school students are more likely to be racial/ethnic minorities, have higher levels of poverty, and higher rates of risky and poor health behaviors, including weight-related behaviors like limited fruit and vegetable intake. However, little is known about fruit/vegetable intake among alternative high school students. This study examined whether perceived barriers to healthy eating mediated the association between self-efficacy to eat healthy foods and fruit/vegetable consumption among alternative high school students. The cross-sectional study population consisted of students (N=145) attending six alternative high schools in the St Paul-Minneapolis, MN, area who were participants in an obesity prevention pilot study and completed a baseline survey during fall 2006. Mixed model linear regression, adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, was used to test a series of regression models performed according to mediation analysis procedures. Students' mean age was 17.3 years; 52% were male, 63% were low-income, and 61% were from racial/ethnic minorities. Students reported a mean fruit/vegetable intake of 3.6 servings per day, mean self-efficacy to eat healthy score of 22.2 (range 3 to 35), and mean barriers to eating healthy score of 6.9 (range 3 to 13). Perceived barriers to healthy eating fully mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and fruit/vegetable consumption (Sobel test statistic 2.7, P=0.007). Interventions targeting the dietary practices of alternative high school students should include components to decrease perceived barriers as a way to increase self-efficacy and ultimately fruit/vegetable intake.     

Benefits, barriers, self-efficacy and knowledge regarding healthy foods; perception of African Americans living in eastern North Carolina

African Americans in the United States suffer from many health disparities such as obesity, diabetes or hypertension. Lifestyle factors including diet and physical activity play an important role in prevention of these health conditions. The purpose of this research project was to assess beliefs, barriers and self-efficacy of eating a healthy diet and self efficacy of shopping for foods such as whole grains or foods designated as low fat or low sodium. Additionally, the objective was to assess beliefs about healthfulness, appropriate consumption, and protective aspect of specific foods including fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. The assessment was done using a survey instrument developed for this study. Data collection took place at two church locations. Data were obtained from 57 African Americans, mean age 50 years old (SD 12.70) completed the survey. The majority of respondents (58.1%) were females and most (75%) had at least some college education. Generally, benefits of eating healthy foods received considerably higher scores compared to barriers of eating healthy. A belief that healthy foods would help to take care of one''s body received the highest mean score while a belief that healthy foods are too expensive had the highest score from all barriers. The results showed high self-efficacy of eating and purchasing healthy foods, high awareness of knowledge regarding foods associated with disease prevention but low awareness of recommendations for fruits and vegetables. The high scores for benefits, self-efficacy and knowledge regarding eating healthy foods did not translate into the perception of intake of such foods. Most participants believed that they do not eat enough of healthy foods. Interventions design to help African Americans make dietary changes should be culturally relevant and should involved working on a community level utilizing messages that are familiar and relevant to African Americans.     

The importance of decisional balance and self-efficacy in relation to stages of change for fruit and vegetable intakes by young adults.

PURPOSE: To examine the stages of change, decisional balance, and self-efficacy constructs in relation to fruit and vegetable intakes by young adults 18-24 years old. DESIGN: A cross-sectional project was conducted by 10 states in January-July 2000 to examine decisional balance and self-efficacy in relation to stage of change for increasing fruit and vegetable intake among young adults. SUBJECTS: In all, 1545 usable surveys were returned (response rate = 55%). More non-respondents were men and precontemplators than respondents. Sixty-one percent of respondents were women, 90.3% were white, and 49.7% were current students. SETTING: Alabama, Kansas, Maine, Michigan, Nebraska, New York, Rhode Island, Oregon, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. MEASURES: A telephone screening interview and a self-administered mail survey. ANALYSIS: Analysis of variance, principal components analysis, cluster analysis, and chi 2 test. RESULTS: From precontemplation to maintenance, a significant linear trend was found toward higher food intake and self-efficacy for fruits and vegetables. The patterns of shifts in the pros and cons across the stages resembled those of other health behaviors. The decisional balance items were further classified into five component factors that varied significantly in importance across the stages. Four subject clusters were derived (unconcerned, reluctant, exploring, and action-oriented); distribution of the clusters agreed with that of the five stages. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports applicability of the Transtheoretical Model for assessing fruit and vegetable consumption by young adults. Derivation of the four clusters implies the importance of including decisional balance and self-efficacy as outcome measures besides dietary behavior for evaluating the effectiveness of nutrition interventions.     

Changes in Adults’ Eating Behaviors During the Initial Months of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Narrative Review

Factors such as regulations and health concerns shifted daily habits, including eating behaviors, during the early months of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This comprehensive narrative review synthesizes research on eating behavior changes during the early months of the pandemic (February to June 2020), including changes in amount, rate, and timing of food consumption, types and healthfulness of foods consumed, the occurrence of other specified eating behaviors (eg, restrained eating or binging), and reasons for eating (eg, stress or cravings), among adults. A literature search using three EBSCOhost databases and Google Scholar was conducted to identify relevant articles made available in 2020. A total of 71 articles representing 250,715 individuals from more than 30 countries were reviewed. Findings show eating behaviors changed little during the early COVID-19 pandemic for most participants. Among those whose eating behaviors changed, increases in both intake and frequency of eating meals and snacks were more common than decreases. Findings on timing of eating and healthfulness of food consumed showed mixed results. However, when changes occurred in the type of food consumed, increases were more common for snacks, homemade pastries, white bread/pasta, legumes, and fruits/vegetables; decreases were more common for meats, seafood/fish, frozen foods, fast food, dark breads/grains, and dark leafy green vegetables. During the pandemic, binging, uncontrolled eating, and overeating increased, meal skipping decreased, and restrictive eating had mixed findings. Changes in factors such as emotions and mood (eg, depression), cravings, and environmental factors (eg, food insecurity) were related to changes in eating behaviors. Findings can inform clinical practitioners in efforts to mitigate disruptions to normal, healthy eating patterns among adults both in and outside of global health catastrophes.     

Influence of a Nutrigenetic Intervention on Self-Efficacy,Emotions, and Rewarding Behaviors in Unhealthy Eating among Mexicans: An Exploratory Pilot Study

The Genome-based Mexican (GENOMEX) diet is a strategy for preventing and managing obesity. Emotion and eating behavior in the context of a nutrigenetic intervention have not been thoroughly studied. We aimed to explore the influence of the GENOMEX diet on emotions, self-efficacy, and rewarding behaviors in unhealthy eating among subjects with risk factors for obesity-related chronic diseases. Twenty-eight subjects included in the six-month GENOMEX intervention answered questions regarding emotions that influence food consumption. Additionally, the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and the Reward-based eating drive scale (RED) were applied. In the study, minimal, mild, moderate, and severe depression were present in 46.4%, 39.3%, 10.7%, and 3.6%, respectively. RED did not change, but it correlated with a higher intake of fats (r² = 0.684, β = 2.066, p = 0.003). Mood influenced unhealthy eating in 71.7% of subjects, and 76.9% experienced binge episodes triggered by anxiety. Sugars were the most consumed foods during binge episodes (42.2%). Both low self-efficacy levels and binge episodes were associated with high consumption of unhealthy foods. After the intervention, 10.7% of subjects reported a high level of self-efficacy. In conclusion, a culturally acceptable and genetically compatible regional Mexican food diet reduced negative emotions and unhealthy eating while increasing self-efficacy.     

Portion distortion: typical portion sizes selected by young adults

OBJECTIVE: The incidence of obesity has increased in parallel with increasing portion sizes of individually packaged and ready-to-eat prepared foods as well as foods served at restaurants. Portion distortion (perceiving large portion sizes as appropriate amounts to eat at a single eating occasion) may contribute to increasing energy intakes and expanding waistlines. The purpose of this study was to determine typical portion sizes that young adults select, how typical portion sizes compare with reference portion sizes (based in this study on the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act's quantities of food customarily eaten per eating occasion), and whether the size of typical portions has changed over time. SUBJECTS: Young adults (n=177, 75% female, age range 16 to 26 years) at a major northeastern university. METHODS: Participants served themselves typical portion sizes of eight foods at breakfast (n=63) or six foods at lunch or dinner (n=62, n=52, respectively). Typical portion-size selections were unobtrusively weighed. A unit score was calculated by awarding 1 point for each food with a typical portion size that was within 25% larger or smaller than the reference portion; larger or smaller portions were given 0 points. Thus, each participant's unit score could range from 0 to 8 at breakfast or 0 to 6 at lunch and dinner. Analysis of variance or t tests were used to determine whether typical and reference portion sizes differed, and whether typical portion sizes changed over time. RESULTS: Mean unit scores (+/-standard deviation) were 3.63+/-1.27 and 1.89+/-1.14, for breakfast and lunch/dinner, respectively, indicating little agreement between typical and reference portion sizes. Typical portions sizes in this study tended to be significantly different from those selected by young adults in a similar study conducted 2 decades ago. CONCLUSIONS: Portion distortion seems to affect the portion sizes selected by young adults for some foods. This phenomenon has the potential to hinder weight loss, weight maintenance, and/or health improvement efforts. Thus, to ensure more effective nutrition counseling, food and nutrition professionals must develop ways to "undistort" what clients perceive to be typical portion sizes and help them recognize what is an appropriate amount to eat at a single eating occasion.     

A Satiety Quotient: A Formulation to Assess the Satiating Effect of Food

This paper introduces a satiety quotient (SQ) to assess the satiating effect of an eating episode. This procedure constitutes an improvement on previous measures by considering the satiating effects of the eating episode over time. A satiety quotient was calculated from data obtained from several studies involving the presentation of a preload/meal to young lean male and female subjects. Subjects were presented with preloads/meals of varying composition, and motivation to eat immediately prior to, and periodically following, the eating episode were measured. Food and fluids were not consumed whilst motivation to eat was measured in the post preload/meal period. The SQ was calculated by dividing the difference between ratings of motivation to eat before and after the eating episode (pre minus post) by the weight or energy content of intake during the episode. This quotient relates intake to the rate of return of motivation to eat in the post-ingestive period, a relationship which is not apparent on separate examination of the amount consumed or ratings of motivation to eat. Development of this satiety quotient is a further contribution to the evolution of the concept of quantifying satiating effects of foods, and provides additional information on the effects of food attributes on short-term appetite control.     

Assessing stages of change for fruit and vegetable intake in young adults: a combination of traditional staging algorithms and food-frequency questionnaires

Adequate fruit and vegetable intake is strongly associated with a reduced risk for various chronic diseases. US national surveys show that 18- to-24-year-olds are not consuming enough of these foods. Theory-based nutrition interventions, e.g. stage-tailored education programs, are needed for promoting fruit and vegetable consumption in this age group. Accurate stage assignment is the basis for developing effective stage-tailored interventions. In the current study, three different methods were compared for assigning stages of change in fruit and vegetable intakes by young adults. Significant differences in food intake, decisional balance and self-efficacy were found between respondents with concordant responses to the traditional stage algorithm and the food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and those with discordant responses. The stage assignment method that combined the staging algorithm and FFQ identified a distinct stage, labeled 'non-reflective action', in addition to the traditional five stages of change. This stage lay between the preparation and action stages with regard to food intake and psychosocial variables. Implications of the findings were discussed for future intervention programs that attempt to promote fruit and vegetable intake.     

The relationship between eating self-efficacy and eating disorder symptoms in a non-clinical sample

Most research on eating self-efficacy has focused on its relationship with eating behaviors and weight-loss in clinical populations. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between eating self-efficacy and the behavioral and psychological characteristics associated with eating disorders in a non-clinical sample of adults. A total of 219 men and women aged 18 and older completed questionnaires measuring eating disorder symptoms and eating self-efficacy. The results indicated that low confidence in the ability to control eating while experiencing negative emotions was associated with greater weight preoccupation and bulimic thought and behaviors. In addition, low confidence in ability to control eating when an abundance of food is available was inversely related to feelings of ineffectiveness or general negative self-evaluation. Ultimately, the findings suggest that low eating self-efficacy may also be associated with eating problems within populations not seeking treatment for either eating disorders or weight-loss. The implications of the findings are discussed.     

Accuracy of estimation of large food portions

To examine accuracy of reporting of large food portions, 50 adults were invited to eat a restaurant meal that included a hamburger patty, french fries, and ice cream. After eating, participants were asked to estimate the amount of food consumed using commonly used and larger-sized food models as a guide. With the use of commonly used models, underreporting was evident for all three foods. For example, the amount of hamburger patty consumed was on average 4.01 oz, although the average amount reported was 3.04 oz (P<.05). When larger-sized models were used, the amount reported more closely matched the amount consumed, although underreporting persisted for the hamburger patty and french fries. In summary, significant underreporting of large food portions may result when commonly used food models are used to assist individuals in reporting food portions.     

Analysis of Self-Regulation of Eating Behaviors within Polish Adolescents’ COVID-19 Experience (PLACE-19) Study

The self-regulation of eating behaviors (suppression of behavioral short-term impulse to consume food products in the interest of pursuing long-term weight goals), has been an important determinant for adopting a healthy lifestyle in the period of the COVID-19 pandemic in adults, but there have been no such studies conducted in the population of adolescents in this period. The aim of the presented study is to analyze self-regulation of eating behaviors in the population-based sample of Polish adolescents within the Polish Adolescents’ COVID-19 Experience (PLACE-19) Study. The Self-Regulation of Eating Behavior Questionnaire (SREBQ) was used to assess self-regulation of eating behaviors in the studied population of 1126 Polish adolescents (818 females and 308 males), aged 15–20, recruited based on a random quota sampling within a national sample. Based on the screening questions of the SREBQ, 145 individuals were excluded from the analysis. The participants of the study were categorized based on their gender, body mass index, body mass index change during the COVID-19 pandemic, and food products declared as tempting. The major factors associated with SREBQ score were body mass index change and tempting food products. The respondents losing weight during the COVID-19 pandemic were characterized by a higher SREBQ score than those maintaining stable body mass or gaining weight (3.4 vs. 3.2 vs. 3.2; p = 0.0001). The respondents declaring both sweet and salty food products as tempting were characterized by a lower SREBQ score than those declaring only sweet, only salty, or declaring no tempting products (3.2 vs. 3.4 vs. 3.4 vs. 3.4; p < 0.0001). The major factors associated with SREBQ categories were gender, body mass index change, and tempting food products. A higher share of respondents characterized by a high self-regulation of eating behaviors was observed for males than for females (27.4% vs. 18.8%; p = 0.0142); for respondents losing weight during the COVID-19 pandemic than for respondents gaining weight (25.9% vs. 15.5%; p = 0.0423); as well as for respondents declaring no tempting products than those declaring both sweet and salty food products (38.3% vs. 18.2%; p < 0.0001). It was concluded that the self-regulation of eating behaviors in adolescents is closely associated with food products perceived as tempting by them, as well as with gender. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the low self-regulation of eating behaviors was a significant determinant of the body mass gain. Taking this into account, female adolescents characterized by a low self-regulation of eating behaviors especially should be subjected to a dedicated intervention program to prevent overweight and obesity.     

Predictors of changes in adolescents' consumption of fruits, vegetables and energy-dense snacks

Understanding the predictors of developmental changes in adolescent eating behaviours is important for the design of nutrition interventions. The present study examined associations between individual, social and physical environmental factors and changes in adolescent eating behaviours over 2 years. Consumption of fruits, vegetables and energy-dense snacks was assessed using a Web-based survey completed by 1850 adolescents from years 7 and 9 of secondary schools in Victoria, Australia, at baseline and 2 years later. Perceived value of healthy eating, self-efficacy for healthy eating, social modelling and support, and home availability and accessibility of foods were assessed at baseline. Self-efficacy for increasing fruit consumption was positively associated with the change in fruit and vegetable consumption, while self-efficacy for decreasing junk food consumption was inversely associated with the change in energy-dense snack consumption. Home availability of energy-dense foods was inversely associated with the change in fruit consumption and positively associated with the change in energy-dense snack consumption, while home availability of fruits and vegetables was positively associated with the change in vegetable consumption. Perceived value of healthy eating and modelling of healthy eating by mothers were positively associated with the change in fruit consumption. Support of best friends for healthy eating was positively associated with the change in vegetable consumption. Self-efficacy and home availability of foods appear to be consistent predictors of change in fruit, vegetable and energy-dense snack consumption. Future study should assess the effectiveness of methods to increase self-efficacy for healthy eating and to improve home availability of healthy food options in programmes promoting healthy eating among adolescents.     

Knowledge of current dietary guidelines and food choice by college students: better eaters have higher knowledge of dietary guidance

College students enrolled in university dining plans are exposed daily to a food environment characterized by foods high in energy, fats, and added sugars, and low in nutrient density. Their decisions about what to eat are currently made in an environment where no nutrition labeling is required. To fill the gap in current literature regarding whether or not increased nutrition knowledge of dietary guidance actually translates into positive behavior, this cross-sectional study investigated self-reported eating patterns of 200 college students. An Internet-based survey was used to identify how closely respondents followed the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, and whether their eating patterns were related to their knowledge of dietary guidance. It was observed that, for fruit, dairy, protein, and whole grains, increased knowledge is related to increased likelihood of meeting dietary guidelines. Moreover, when asked about individual food choices, nutrition knowledge was related to making more healthful choices in every case. Ultimately, increased knowledge of dietary guidance appears to be positively related to more healthful eating patterns. This suggests that guidelines such as the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, in conjunction with effective public-awareness campaigns, may be a useful mechanism for promoting change in what foods consumers choose to eat.     

Interpretation and related factors of healthy eating among young people in Japan

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to interpret and determine factors related to "healthy eating" among young people in Japan. The findings would be useful in improving the consciousness among young people regarding healthy food, eventually leading to the prevention of lifestyle-related diseases. METHOD: We conducted a questionnaire survey among young people in Saga and Fukuoka prefecture (n = 482) from October through November, 2004. The data were analyzed using chi-square test, one-way ANOVA, factor analysis and multiple regression analysis. RESULTS: (1) As for the interpretation of "healthy food", 2 factors ("eating style and habits" and "food and nutrition") were extracted in the factor analysis. This was in line with the interpretation among adults. (2) The scores of "eating style and habits" and "food and nutrition" increased with the age of the subjects, and a significant difference in grade was observed (p = 0.00). (3) Sex and physical exercise were related to "eating style and habits" score (p = 0.00), whereas age and sex were related to "food and nutrition" score (p = 0.00). CONCLUSION: The interpretation of "healthy food" among young people was consistent with that among adults. However, it is implied that the traditional view of "healthy food" has begun to change among young people. The necessity of proper eating habits at home and food education out side is implied.     

Reported dietary and exercise behaviors,beliefs and knowledge among university undergraduates

A ten-percent random sample of students (n=2,610) attending a large midwestern university was mailed a questionnaire designed to assess dietary and exercise-related behaviors, knowledge, and beliefs. A total of 1,226 students completed and returned the survey. The majority of respondents exhibited an under-standing of some basic nutrition concepts, but held several misconceptions especially related to carbohydrate nutrition. Thirty-six percent reported no use of discretionary salt, and a surprisingly high 65% reported eating high fat foods less than once per day. However, 69% of the students reported failure to eat any fruit at least once per day, and 43% indicated they ate vegetables less than once per day. Nutrition-related beliefs and behaviors were only weakly correlated. Only 24% reported participation in strenuous aerobic exercise lasting at least 30 minutes per session. The results suggest that a significant percentage of the college students included in this survey exhibited unfavorable dietary and exercise habits.     

A tailored multimedia nutrition education pilot program for low-income women receiving food assistance.

This article describes the development and pilot evaluation of a tailored multimedia program to improve dietary behavior among 378 low-income women enrolled in the Food Stamp program in Durham, North Carolina. After randomization to intervention or control groups, participants completed a baseline survey and were resurveyed 1-3 months post-intervention. Measures included dietary fat intake assessed using a brief food-frequency questionnaire, stage of change, knowledge of low-fat foods, self-efficacy and eating behavior questions. The computer-based intervention consisted of a tailored soap opera and interactive 'info-mercials' that provided individualized feedback about dietary fat intake, knowledge and strategies for lowering fat based on stage of change. At follow-up, intervention group participants had improved significantly in knowledge (P < 0.001), stage of change (P < 0.05) and certain eating behaviors (P < 0.05) compared to the control group. Both study groups had lowered their reported fat intake markedly at follow-up (P < 0.001), but did not differ significantly from each other. A majority of participants rated the program as very helpful and were interested in using a similar program in the future. The findings of this pilot study suggest that computerized tailored self-help health promotion programs may be effective educational interventions for lower income and minority populations.     

Determinants of consumer understanding of health claims

The new EU regulation on nutrition and health claims states that claims can be permitted only if they can be expected to be understood by consumers. Investigating determinants of consumer understanding of health claims has therefore become an important topic. Understanding of a health claim on a yoghurt product was investigated with a sample of 720 category users in Germany. Health claim understanding was measured using open answers, which were subsequently content analysed and classified by comparison with the scientific dossier of the health claim. Based on this respondents were classified as safe, risky or other. In addition to the open questions on claim understanding, respondents rated a number of statements on claim interpretation for agreement and completed scales on interest in healthy eating, attitude to functional foods, and subjective knowledge on food and health. Results showed that respondents with a positive attitude to functional foods are more likely to be classified as risky with regard to their claim understanding, whereas respondents with negative or neutral attitudes are more likely to be classified into the other category. Implications for testing claim understanding are discussed.     

Factors influencing food choices of adolescents: findings from focus-group discussions with adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To assess adolescents' perceptions about factors influencing their food choices and eating behaviors. DESIGN: Data were collected in focus-group discussions. SUBJECTS/SETTING: The study population included 141 adolescents in 7th and 10th grade from 2 urban schools in St Paul, Minn, who participated in 21 focus groups. ANALYSIS: Data were analyzed using qualitative research methodology, specifically, the constant comparative method. RESULTS: Factors perceived as influencing food choices included hunger and food cravings, appeal of food, time considerations of adolescents and parents, convenience of food, food availability, parental influence on eating behaviors (including the culture or religion of the family), benefits of foods (including health), situation-specific factors, mood, body image, habit, cost, media, and vegetarian beliefs. Major barriers to eating more fruits, vegetables, and dairy products and eating fewer high-fat foods included a lack of sense of urgency about personal health in relation to other concerns, and taste preferences for other foods. Suggestions for helping adolescents eat a more healthful diet include making healthful food taste and look better, limiting the availability of unhealthful options, making healthful food more available and convenient, teaching children good eating habits at an early age, and changing social norms to make it "cool" to eat healthfully. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that if programs to improve adolescent nutrition are to be effective, they need to address a broad range of factors, in particular environmental factors (e.g., the increased availability and promotion of appealing, convenient foods within homes schools, and restaurants).     

Food Cravings,Ethnicity and Other Factors Related to Eating Out

Objective: Our objective was to study factors related to eating patterns, specifically whether certain food cravings were associated with frequency of meals eaten away from home.

Methods: Data were collected from 277 patients from a family medicine residency office in Arizona. The survey questionnaire included information about the respondents’ demographics, socioeconomic status, food cravings, as well as, number of meals eaten away from home. The food craving inventory included foods in four categories identified by factor analysis: fast foods, carbohydrates, sweets and snacks. Data on food cravings were factor analyzed and scale scores were derived.

Results: Being a Hispanic adult, working outside the home, and cravings for individual food items were related to eating more meals away from home. If the mother was working outside the home, the youngest child ate an average of two additional meals away from home each week. In general respondent’s cravings for some specific food items were also related to higher numbers of meals their child ate away from home. Cravings for both fast food and snacks were positively correlated with adult eating out. None of the respondents’ scale scores were related to child’s eating away from home. Adults with Arizona Health Care Cost Containment System insurance (AHCCCS—a form of Medicaid) and older adults were less likely to eat away from home compared to patients with other types of insurance.

Conclusions: Socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and food cravings are related to adult and child patterns of eating meals away from home.