原发性三叉神经痛微血管减压术中岩静脉的处理

目的 探讨原发性三叉神经痛微血管减压术中岩静脉及其分支的处理方法。方法 回顾性分析2012年1月至2015年5月微血管减压术治疗的92例原发性三叉神经痛的临床资料。根据术中表现,将岩静脉和其属支分为四种情况:①岩静脉主干妨碍手术操作;②岩静脉属支妨碍手术操作;③岩静脉为责任血管;④岩静脉未妨碍手术操作。结果 岩静脉主干妨碍手术操作32例,电凝切断10例;岩静脉属支妨碍手术操作40例,电凝切断28例;岩静脉及其属支为责任血管3例,电凝切断1例;岩静脉未妨碍手术操作17例,均未切断。术后疼痛消失82例,好转8例,无效2例;手术有效率为97.8%。术后随访3个月~3年,平均18个月;复发3例。术后死亡1例,为小脑梗死,术中切断岩静主干。结论 原发性三叉神经痛微血管减压术中,岩静脉的处理是术中重要的操作环节,同时也是减少术后严重并发症的重要环节。     

三叉神经痛微血管减压术中岩静脉的处理

目的总结三叉神经痛微血管减压术中岩静脉的处理经验。方法回顾性分析207例行微血管减压术治疗的三叉神经痛病人的临床资料。根据岩静脉与手术入路的关系,将其分成4种情况：①岩静脉不阻挡入路;②岩静脉的主干阻挡入路;③岩静脉的属支阻挡入路;④岩静脉为责任血管。根据4组不同情况,总结处理方法。结果手术有效率为99.03%;平均随访25个月,复发率4.89%。岩静脉不阻挡入路82例;岩静脉主干阻挡入路28例,予以切断5例（2.42%）;属支阻挡入路62例,予以切断1～3支30例（14.49%）;岩静脉压迫三叉神经35例（16.91%）,均电凝后切断。术后发生严重并发症1例（0.48%）,无死亡病例。结论岩静脉的处理是三叉神经痛微血管减压术中重要的操作环节,是保障手术成功的基础。     

乙状窦后入路显微手术治疗原发性三叉神经痛的手术探查方向选择

目的探讨乙状窦后入路微血管减压术治疗原发性三叉神经痛手术探查方向的选择。方法回顾性分析2000年1月～2008年1月采用乙状窦后入路显微手术治疗86例原发性三叉神经痛的手术探查方向,将其分为两组,2000年1月～2005年3月期间治疗49例为A组,手术开始即行乙状窦后紧邻天幕下探查,其中46例（93.9%）需切断至少1支岩静脉属支;2005年4月～2008年1月期间治疗37例为B组,手术开始即行乙状窦后紧邻听神经根上方探查,其中7例（18.9%）需切断至少1支岩静脉属支。结果A组平均随访62个月,随访期间总有效率87.8%（43例）;术后并发病侧听力障碍、复视各1例,随访期间好转;小脑出血1例,急诊行颅后窝减压小脑血肿清除后3d死亡。B组平均随访21个月,总有效率89.2%（33例）;术后并发病侧听力障碍1例,随访期间好转;病侧听力丧失1例,随访8个月无好转。结论采用乙状窦后显微血管减压术治疗原发性三叉神经痛时,手术开始即选用紧邻听神经根上方探查,多数情况下不需处理岩静脉即可获得对三叉神经根区的良好显露,避免了岩静脉属支切断可能带来的严重并发症,但术后发生听力障碍并发症的可能性增大。     

三叉神经痛微血管减压术中岩静脉的处理

目的探讨三叉神经痛微血管减压术中岩静脉及其分支的处理。方法回顾性分析187例三叉神经痛患者行微血管减压术,显微镜下观察岩静脉的位置、分支情况,术中避免损伤岩静脉主干以及较粗大分支,对阻碍三叉神经暴露以及作为压迫血管的细小分支可予以切断。结果术中均发现岩静脉,根据岩静脉主干的数量分为:单干型17例(9.1%)、双干型102例(54.5%)、三干型68例(36.4%),术中发现岩静脉及分支为责任血管18例,其中动静脉混合压迫13例,单纯静脉压迫5例,术后15例治愈,2例好转,1例无效。结论岩静脉的正确处理是减少术后严重并发症的重要保障。     

三叉神经痛与面肌痉挛显微血管减压的显微解剖

目的 研究小脑脑桥角区的解剖结构,为三叉神经痛与面肌痉挛微血管减压手术提供解剖学依据.方法 16例成人头颅湿标本,采用乙状窦后入路,对小脑脑桥角区行显微解剖研究.结果 (1)上界为上项线中点下2 cm,下界为枕骨大孔上缘1 cm,内侧界距枕窦缘3 cm,外侧界为乳突基底内侧0.5 cm的骨窗中心恰与面听神经垂直对应,是微血管减压的最佳骨窗.(2)脑池段三叉神经与面听神经最宽距离平均为(11.19±0.12)mm.(3)岩静脉距离面听神经平均为(10.05±0.11)mm.结论 该区手术骨窗中心位置可行最佳选择.利用岩静脉与面听神经的间隙行微血管减压术无需切断岩静脉.     

脑池段三叉神经周围结构的显微解剖

目的 显微解剖观察三叉神经、小脑上动脉与岩静脉之间的解剖关系,以为微血管减压术提供解剖学参考.方法 模拟经乙状窦后锁孔入路手术对15 例(30 侧)成人尸头标本进行解剖,骨窗范围设计为2.00 cm × 2.50 cm,于4 ~ 24 倍手术显微镜下观察显露范围和解剖结构,打开颅盖骨、剔除硬脑膜和大脑组织,显露小脑幕和脑干,通过显微镜解剖三叉神经、小脑上动脉和岩静脉,观察分析相关解剖学变异.结果 经乙状窦后锁孔入路行微血管减压术可较好地显露三叉神经、滑车神经、岩静脉和小脑上动脉.约36.67%(11/30)标本小脑上动脉与三叉神经接触或压迫,15 例标本内听道上结节形态变异较大,阻挡了对Meckel憩室的显露.其中单干型岩静脉24 侧,双干型岩静脉6 侧;约22.22%(8/36)岩静脉在内听道内侧缘外侧部汇入岩上窦,63.89%(23/36)在内听道内侧缘与Meckel 憩室处三叉神经外侧缘之间汇入岩上窦,13.89%(5/36)于三叉神经外侧缘以内汇入岩上窦.三叉神经与岩静脉相对位置关系分为无接触型、接触型、属支"骑跨"型、蛛网膜粘连型和贯穿神经型.结论 小脑上动脉和岩静脉与三叉神经解剖关系密切,是三叉神经痛的主要责任血管.岩静脉是微血管减压术中必须显露的血管结构,其位置、形态、分支和静脉回流区域存在明显变异,个体化处理岩静脉,有助于手术视野的显露,减少静脉系统并发症.     

三叉神经微血管减压术中静脉压迫的处理策略

目的探讨采用三叉神经微血管减压术(microvascular decompression,MVD)治疗原发性三叉神经痛(primary trigeminal neuralgia,PTN)术中处理静脉压迫的策略。方法回顾分析57例原发性三叉神经痛患者的临床资料。所有患者均在术中发现静脉压迫,对比分析术中情况与术后疗效。结果所有责任静脉均为岩静脉属支,24例患者(42. 1%)为单纯静脉压迫,33例患者(57. 9%)为动静脉混合压迫。术后,55例患者(95. 5%)疼痛完全消失或明显减轻,2例患者(4. 5%)无改善;其中3例患者(5. 4%)出现复发;总有效率为91. 2%。术中保留责任静脉者42例,其中术后发生小脑水肿者3例(7. 1%);切断责任静脉者15例,术后发生小脑水肿者5例(33. 3%);两者的差异有统计学意义(P 0. 05)。结论三叉神经微血管减压术是治疗原发性三叉神经痛有效途径之一,合理处理术中静脉压迫有助于提高手术的效果。     

微血管减压术治疗原发性三叉神经痛

目的综合评价三叉神经微血管减压术治疗原发性三叉神经痛的近远期疗效及手术风险。方法回顾性分析三叉神经微血管减压术治疗的原发性三叉神经痛25例患者临床资料。手术采用乙状窦后入路,术中分离血管神经后用Teflon补片分隔。结果术中发现24例有血管压迫,18例为小脑上动脉压迫,1例为基底动脉,3例为小脑前下动脉,1例为岩静脉压迫,1例为小脑上动脉和岩静脉压迫,另1例未发现血管压迫。结论三叉神经显微血管减压术临床适应证广泛,对神经损伤小,临床疗效满意,但手术风险不容忽视。     

小脑水平裂—小脑桥脑裂入路治疗三叉神经痛的临床研究

目的探讨经小脑水平裂-小脑桥脑裂入路治疗三叉神经痛的经验教训。方法回顾性分析经小脑水平裂-小脑桥脑裂入路治疗的连续133例三叉神经痛病例。结果所有患者均可顺利或较顺利的分开小脑水平裂外侧部和小脑桥脑裂上支,岩静脉均得到妥善处理,128例有明确责任血管压迫,5例可疑血管压迫,均行个体化围套式减压,术后立即止痛129例,术后3～5天止痛3例,1例疼痛减轻约50%。无死亡,1例听力下降,1例面部轻瘫,11例出现口唇疱疹,8例患侧面部轻微麻木。1例(0.75%)术后10个月复发。结论经小脑水平裂——小脑桥脑裂入路治疗三叉神经痛,可以避免传统的枕下乙状窦后入路三叉神经感觉根入桥脑处显露不良的缺陷,提高有效率,减少听力下降、面瘫等并发症的发生。     

181例原发性三叉神经痛微血管减压术疗效分析

目的 探讨微血管减压术在原发性三叉神经痛疗中的效果,为指导诊疗提供临床依据.方法 对广东省人民医院神经外科自2000年1月至2007年12月收治的181例原发性三叉神经痛患者的一般资料、责任血管和外科手术效果等临床资料进行总结分析.结果 181例三叉神经痛患者中,O型血患者79例(占43.65%),较国人正常O型血分布(33.80%)有增高趋势;发病率右侧:左侧=1.8:1;2条以上责任血管者45例(24.86%);责任血管包括小脑上动脉96例,小脑后下动脉7例,小脑前下动脉以及动静脉混合接触或压迫者各25例.内听动脉13例,基底动脉15例,椎动脉9例,单纯静脉15例(主要为岩静脉和桥静脉),无名血管9例(主要为以上动静脉血管的分支).181例患者术后1月内171例症状完全消失(94.48%);症状改善,但需结合药物控制者9例(4.97%);植物生存1例(0.55%).结论 本组资料提示O型血可能更易患三叉神经痛;微血管减压术是原发性三叉神经痛的理想治疗手段,防止遗漏多发性责任血管是减少术后复发的重要因素.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Special Pharmacokinetic Considerations in Children

Summary: Pediatric patients have greater degrees of pharmacokinetic variability and unpredictability than adults. This variability results from the effects of pharmacogenetics, age and growth, prior and current comedication, and disease. Newborns with seizures have the least predictable dosage requirements, and their needs change as drug-eliminating mechanisms mature in the neonatal period. Infants have the highest relative capacities to eliminate antiepileptics of any age group and require the largest relative doses. In addition to age-related trends, children demonstrate the same drug-specific, pharmacokinetic phenomena that adults do, including nonlinear phenytoin elimination, nonlinear valproate binding, and autoinduction of carbamazepine. Intercurrent illness and drug interactions further modify the age-related pharmacokinetic patterns in children and make dosage requirements even more unpredictable. Recent studies have shown that febrile illness can affect drug elimination, sometimes decreasing drug levels by 50% or more. Intermittent treatment with benzodiazepines administered either orally or rectally can be an important adjunct and help minimize this type of problem for children with marginally controlled epilepsy. Intermittent benzodiazepines are also helpful for children who have febrile seizures and who need only occasional antiepileptic protection.